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Sacilotto G, Sanders R, Gonjo T, Marinho D, Mason B, Naemi R, Vilas-Boas JP, Papic C. "Selecting the right tool for the job" a narrative overview of experimental methods used to measure or estimate active and passive drag in competitive swimming. Sports Biomech 2023; 22:1572-1589. [PMID: 37081773 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2023.2197858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/22/2023]
Abstract
Free-swimming performance depends strongly on the ability to develop propulsive force and minimise resistive drag. Therefore, estimating resistive drag (passive or active) may be important to understand how free-swimming performance can be improved. The purpose of this narrative overview was to describe and discuss experimental methods of measuring or estimating active and passive drag relevant to competitive swimming. Studies were identified using a mixed-model approach comprising a search of SCOPUS and Web of Science data bases, follow-up of relevant studies cited in manuscripts from the primary search, and additional studies identified by the co-authors based on their specific areas of fluid dynamics expertise. The utility and limitations of active and passive drag methods were critically discussed with reference to primary research domains in this field, 'swimmer morphology' and 'technique analysis'. This overview and the subsequent discussions provide implications for researchers when selecting an appropriate method to measure resistive forces (active or passive) relevant to improving performance in free-swimming.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ross Sanders
- Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Tomohiro Gonjo
- Department of Rehabilitation and Sport Sciences, Bournemouth University, Dorset, UK
| | - Daniel Marinho
- Research Center in Sports Science, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
| | | | - Roozbeh Naemi
- School of Life Sciences and Education, Staffordshire University, Stoke-on-Trent, UK
| | | | - Christopher Papic
- Exercise and Sports Science, School of Science and Technology, University of New England, Armidale, Australia
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Development of the technology to measure active drag ofswimmers by the method of small perturbations. J Biomech 2023; 149:111486. [PMID: 36780732 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2023.111486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
Abstract
The research aimed at further improvement of the technology of measuring swimmers' active drag by the small perturbation method (SPM) at the average maximal swimming velocity (v0max). For better reliability and accuracy of measurements, a standard variant of SPM was developed to measure automatically active drag (Fr(ad)), dimensionless coefficient of hydrodynamic force (Cx) and total external mechanical power Pto in different competitive swimming techniques during a single 50 m trial. The study involved twelve elite swimmers who specialized in front crawl at the distances of 100 and 200 m (780-850 FINA Points). From our measurements, in front crawl the results are following: v0max = 1.909 ± 0.017 m·s-1, Fr(ad) = 106.892 ± 7.276 N, Cx = 0.311 ± 0.028 and Pto = 204.033 ± 13.221 W. For objective estimation of the results, a verification variant of SPM was applied: v0max = 1.911 ± 0.018 m·s-1, Fr(ad) = 107.033 ± 7.232 N, Cx = 0.311 ± 0.030 and Pto = 204.467 ± 12.982 W. The correlation analysis of the results obtained by the standard and verification variants of SPM confirms high accuracy and reliability of the method used (r = 0.988 for v0max; r = 0.979 for Fr(ad); r = 0.988 for Cx(ad); r = 0.979 for Pto). The measurement error, including the method error and the devices error, does not exceed 2.4 %. This method has also a systematic error that reduces the measured data in the same direction from the actual values (min = -2.1 %; max = -2.9 %). This error should be taken into account when analyzing and evaluating the measured hydrodynamic characteristics of swimmers.
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Lopes TJ, Morais JE, Pinto MP, Marinho DA. Numerical and experimental methods used to evaluate active drag in swimming: A systematic narrative review. Front Physiol 2022; 13:938658. [PMID: 36338476 PMCID: PMC9630912 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.938658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: In swimming, it is necessary to understand and identify the main factors that are important to reduce active drag and, consequently, improve the performance of swimmers. However, there is no up-to-date review in the literature clarifying this topic. Thus, a systematic narrative review was performed to update the body of knowledge on active drag in swimming through numerical and experimental methods. Methods: To determine and identify the most relevant studies for this review, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) approach was used. Results: 75 studies related to active drag in swimming and the methodologies applied to study them were analyzed and kept for synthesis. The included studies showed a high-quality score by the Delphi scale (mean score was 5.85 ± 0.38). Active drag was included in seven studies through numerical methods and 68 through experimental methods. In both methods used by the authors to determine the drag, it can be concluded that the frontal surface area plays a fundamental role. Additionally, the technique seems to be a determining factor in reducing the drag force and increasing the propulsive force. Drag tends to increase with speed and frontal surface area, being greater in adults than in children due to body density factors and high levels of speed. However, the coefficient of drag decreases as the technical efficiency of swimming increases (i.e., the best swimmers (the fastest or most efficient) are those with the best drag and swimming hydrodynamics efficiency). Conclusion: Active drag was studied through numerical and experimental methods. There are significantly fewer numerical studies than experimental ones. This is because active drag, as a dynamical phenomenon, is too complex to be studied numerically. Drag is greater in adults than in children and greater in men than in women across all age groups. The study of drag is increasingly essential to collaborate with coaches in the process of understanding the fundamental patterns of movement biomechanics to achieve the best performance in swimming. Although most agree with these findings, there is disagreement in some studies, especially when it is difficult to define competitive level and age. The disagreement concerns three main aspects: 1) period of the studies and improvement of methodologies; 2) discrimination of methodologies between factors observed in numerical vs. experimental methods; 3) evidence that drag tends to be non-linear and depends on personal, technical, and stylistic factors. Based on the complexity of active drag, the study of this phenomenon must continue to improve swimming performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago J. Lopes
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- *Correspondence: Tiago J. Lopes,
| | - Jorge E. Morais
- Research Center in Sports Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
| | - Mafalda P. Pinto
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Daniel A. Marinho
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
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Hypothesis: Hypermobile Ehlers Danlos Syndrome Is a A Determinant of Fetal and Young Infant Bone Strength. Med Hypotheses 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2022.110859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Vision-Based System for Automated Estimation of the Frontal Area of Swimmers: Towards the Determination of the Instant Active Drag: A Pilot Study. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22030955. [PMID: 35161700 PMCID: PMC8839815 DOI: 10.3390/s22030955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Swimmers take great advantage by reducing the drag forces either in passive or active conditions. The purpose of this work is to determine the frontal area of swimmers by means of an automated vision system. The proposed algorithm is automated and also allows to determine lateral pose of the swimmer for training purposes. In this way, a step towards the determination of the instantaneous active drag is reached that could be obtained by correlating the effective frontal area of the swimmer to the velocity. This article shows a novel algorithm for estimating the frontal and lateral area in comparison with other models. The computing time allows to obtain a reasonable online representation of the results. The development of an automated method to obtain the frontal surface area during swimming increases the knowledge of the temporal fluctuation of the frontal surface area in swimming. It would allow the best monitoring of a swimmer in their swimming training sessions. Further works will present the complete device, which allows to track the swimmer while acquiring the images and a more realistic model of conventional active drag ones.
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Santos CC, Marinho DA, Neiva HP, Costa MJ. Propulsive forces in human competitive swimming: a systematic review on direct assessment methods. Sports Biomech 2021:1-21. [PMID: 34369855 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2021.1953574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Human propulsive forces are a key-factor to enhance swimming performance, but there is scarce knowledge when using direct assessments. The aim of this review was to analyse the evidence about human propulsive forces in competitive swimming measured by direct assessment methods. A search up to 30 June 2020 was performed in Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus databases. The Downs and Black Quality Assessment Checklist was used to assess the quality index (QI) of the included studies. Out of 2530 screened records, 35 articles met the inclusion criteria. Tethered-swimming and differential pressure sensors allow directly measure propulsive forces. Cross-sectional designs measured peak and mean propulsive force during the front crawl stroke and including men/boys (≥15 years-old) at different competitive levels were mostly reported. Men are more able to show higher propulsive forces than women counterparts. Short- and long-term effects were observed while using dry-land and in-water training programmes. The magnitude of propulsive force is dependent on the type of assessment method, swimming stroke, number of body limbs and gender. While the short-term effects supporting the different training programmes lead to an increase in propulsive force, there is a lack of long-term evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina C Santos
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Daniel A Marinho
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Henrique P Neiva
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Mário J Costa
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Guarda, Guarda, Portugal
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Hogarth L, Oh YT, Osborough C, Osborough C, Formosa D, Hunter A, Alcock A, Burkett B, Payton C. Passive drag in Para swimmers with physical impairments: Implications for evidence-based classification in Para swimming. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2021; 31:1932-1940. [PMID: 34189782 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The inherent hydrodynamic resistance force, or passive drag, of a swimmer directly influences how they move through the water. For swimmers with physical impairments, the strength of association between passive drag and swimming performance is unknown. Knowledge on this factor could improve the World Para Swimming classification process. This study established the relationship between passive drag and 100 m freestyle race performance in Para swimmers with physical impairments. Using a cross-sectional study design, an electrical-mechanical towing device was used to measure passive drag force in 132 international-level Para swimmers. There was a strong, negative correlation between normalized passive drag force and 100 m freestyle race speed in the combined participant cohort (ρ = -0.77, p < 0.001). Type of physical impairment was found to affect the relationship between passive drag and 100 m freestyle race speed when included in linear regression (R2 = 0.65, χ2 = 11.5, p = 0.025). These findings contribute to the body of evidence that passive drag can provide an objective assessment of activity limitation in Para swimmers with physical impairments. The effect of physical impairment type on the relationship between passive drag and swimming performance should be accounted for in Para swimming classification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke Hogarth
- School of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Qld, Australia
| | - Yim-Taek Oh
- Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Casey Osborough
- Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Conor Osborough
- Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Danielle Formosa
- School of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Qld, Australia
| | - Adam Hunter
- Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce, ACT, Australia
| | | | - Brendan Burkett
- School of Health and Behavioural Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Qld, Australia.,High Performance Sport, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Qld, Australia
| | - Carl Payton
- Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
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Payton C, Hogarth L, Burkett B, VAN DE Vliet P, Lewis S, Oh YT. Active Drag as a Criterion for Evidence-based Classification in Para Swimming. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2020; 52:1576-1584. [PMID: 32032236 PMCID: PMC7292496 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Introduction Paralympic classification should provide athletes with an equitable starting point for competition by minimizing the impact their impairment has on the outcome of the event. As swimming is an event conducted in water, the ability to overcome drag (active and passive) is an important performance determinant. It is plausible that the ability to do this is affected by the type and severity of the physical impairment, but the current World Para Swimming classification system does not objectively account for this component. The aim of this study was to quantify active and passive drag in Para swimmers and evaluate the strength of association between these measures and type of physical impairment, swimming performance, and sport class. Methods Seventy-two highly trained Para swimmers from sport classes S1 to S10 and 14 highly trained nondisabled swimmers were towed by a motorized winch while the towing force was recorded. Passive drag was measured with the arms held by the side; active drag was determined during freestyle swimming using an assisted towing method. Results Active and passive drag were higher in Para swimmers with central motor and neuromuscular impairments than for nondisabled swimmers and were associated with severity of swim-specific impairment (sport class) and maximal freestyle performance in these swimmers (r = −0.40 to −0.50, P ≤ 0.02). Para swimmers with anthropometric impairments showed similar active and passive drag to nondisabled swimmers, and between swimmers from different sport classes. Conclusions Para swimmers with central motor and neuromuscular impairments are predisposed to high active drag during freestyle swimming that impacts on their performance. It is recommended that drag measures be considered in revised classification for these swimmers, but not for those with anthropometric impairments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl Payton
- Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Luke Hogarth
- School of Health and Sport Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, AUSTRALIA
| | - Brendan Burkett
- School of Health and Sport Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, AUSTRALIA
| | - Peter VAN DE Vliet
- Medical and Scientific Department, International Paralympic Committee, GERMANY
| | - Sandra Lewis
- Musculoskeletal Science and Sports Medicine Research Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Yim-Taek Oh
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, UNITED KINGDOM
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Narita K, Nakashima M, Takagi H. Developing a methodology for estimating the drag in front-crawl swimming at various velocities. J Biomech 2017; 54:123-128. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2017.01.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2016] [Revised: 01/24/2017] [Accepted: 01/28/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Hazrati P, Sinclair PJ, Spratford W, Ferdinands RE, Mason BR. Contribution of uncertainty in estimation of active drag using assisted towing method in front crawl swimming. J Sports Sci 2017; 36:7-13. [PMID: 28054499 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2016.1276295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Active drag force in swimming can be calculated from a function of five different variables: swim velocity, tow velocity, belt force, power output and exponent of velocity. The accuracy of the drag force value is dependent on the accuracy of each variable, and on the contribution of each variable to drag estimation. To calculate uncertainty in drag value, first the derivatives of the active drag equation with respect to each variable were obtained. Second, these were multiplied by the uncertainty of that variable. Twelve national age and open level swimmers were recruited to complete four free swimming and five active drag trials. The uncertainties for the free and the tow swim velocities, and for the belt force, contributed approximately 5-6% and 2-3% error, respectively, in calculation of drag. The result of the uncertainty of the velocity exponent (1.8-2.6) indicated a contribution of about 6% error in active drag. The contribution of unequal power output showed that if a power changed 7.5% between conditions, it would lead to about 30% error in calculated drag. Consequently, if a swimmer did not maintain constant power output between conditions, there would be substantial errors in the calculation of active drag.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pendar Hazrati
- a Department of Movement Science , Australian Institute of Sport , Canberra , Australia.,b Discipline of Exercise and Sport Science, Faculty of Health Sciences , University of Sydney , Sydney , Australia
| | - Peter James Sinclair
- b Discipline of Exercise and Sport Science, Faculty of Health Sciences , University of Sydney , Sydney , Australia
| | - Wayne Spratford
- c University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport & Exercise (UCRISE), Faculty of Health , University of Canberra , Canberra , Australia
| | - René Edouard Ferdinands
- b Discipline of Exercise and Sport Science, Faculty of Health Sciences , University of Sydney , Sydney , Australia
| | - Bruce Robert Mason
- a Department of Movement Science , Australian Institute of Sport , Canberra , Australia
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Barbosa TM, Morais JE, Forte P, Neiva H, Garrido ND, Marinho DA. A Comparison of Experimental and Analytical Procedures to Measure Passive Drag in Human Swimming. PLoS One 2015. [PMID: 26207364 PMCID: PMC4514895 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0130868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to compare the swimming hydrodynamics assessed with experimental and analytical procedures, as well as, to learn about the relative contributions of the friction drag and pressure drag to total passive drag. Sixty young talented swimmers (30 boys and 30 girls with 13.59±0.77 and 12.61±0.07 years-old, respectively) were assessed. Passive drag was assessed with inverse dynamics of the gliding decay speed. The theoretical modeling included a set of analytical procedures based on naval architecture adapted to human swimming. Linear regression models between experimental and analytical procedures showed a high correlation for both passive drag (Dp = 0.777*Df+pr; R2 = 0.90; R2a = 0.90; SEE = 8.528; P<0.001) and passive drag coefficient (CDp = 1.918*CDf+pr; R2 = 0.96; R2a = 0.96; SEE = 0.029; P<0.001). On average the difference between methods was -7.002N (95%CI: -40.480; 26.475) for the passive drag and 0.127 (95%CI: 0.007; 0.247) for the passive drag coefficient. The partial contribution of friction drag and pressure drag to total passive drag was 14.12±9.33% and 85.88±9.33%, respectively. As a conclusion, there is a strong relationship between the passive drag and passive drag coefficient assessed with experimental and analytical procedures. The analytical method is a novel, feasible and valid way to gather insight about one's passive drag during training and competition. Analytical methods can be selected not only to perform race analysis during official competitions but also to monitor the swimmer's status on regular basis during training sessions without disrupting or time-consuming procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago M. Barbosa
- National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development, Vila Real, Portugal
- * E-mail:
| | - Jorge E. Morais
- Department of Sport Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Pedro Forte
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Henrique Neiva
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Nuno D. Garrido
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Daniel A. Marinho
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development, Vila Real, Portugal
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Barbosa TM, Morais JE, Marques MC, Silva AJ, Marinho DA, Kee YH. Hydrodynamic profile of young swimmers: Changes over a competitive season. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2014; 25:e184-96. [DOI: 10.1111/sms.12281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- T. M. Barbosa
- National Institute of Education; Nanyang Technological University; Singapore Singapore
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development; Vila Real Portugal
| | - J. E. Morais
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development; Vila Real Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences; Polytechnic Institute of Bragança; Bragança Portugal
| | - M. C. Marques
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development; Vila Real Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences; University of Beira Interior; Covilhã Portugal
| | - A. J. Silva
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development; Vila Real Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences, Exercise and Health; University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro; Vila Real Portugal
| | - D. A. Marinho
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development; Vila Real Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences; University of Beira Interior; Covilhã Portugal
| | - Y. H. Kee
- National Institute of Education; Nanyang Technological University; Singapore Singapore
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