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Yousef M, Yáñez JA, Löbenberg R, Davies NM. Upholding or Breaking the Law of Superposition in Pharmacokinetics. Biomedicines 2024; 12:1843. [PMID: 39200307 PMCID: PMC11351987 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines12081843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2024] [Revised: 07/23/2024] [Accepted: 08/07/2024] [Indexed: 09/02/2024] Open
Abstract
The law of superposition underpins first-order linear pharmacokinetic relationships. Most drugs, therefore, after a single dose can be described by first-order or linear processes, which can be superposed to understand multiple-dose regimen behavior. However, there are a number of situations where drugs could display behaviors after multiple dosing that leads to capacity-limited or saturation non-linear kinetics and the law of superposition is overruled. This review presents a practical guide to understand the equations and calculations for single and multiple-dosing regimens after intravenous and oral administration. It also provides the pharmaceutical basis for saturation in ADME processes and the consequent changes in the area under the concentration-time curve, which represents drug exposure that can lead to the modulation of efficacy and/or toxic effects. The pharmacokineticist must implicitly understand the principles of superposition, which are a central tenet of drug behavior and disposition during drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malaz Yousef
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E1, Canada; (M.Y.); (R.L.)
| | - Jaime A. Yáñez
- Escuela de Posgrado, Universidad Internacional Iberoamericana, Campeche 24560, Mexico;
| | - Raimar Löbenberg
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E1, Canada; (M.Y.); (R.L.)
| | - Neal M. Davies
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E1, Canada; (M.Y.); (R.L.)
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2
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Won JM, Choi HG, Park SY, Kim JH, Kim SH. Effects of Hyperlipidemia on the Pharmacokinetics of Tofacitinib, a JAK 1/3 Inhibitor, in Rats. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2195. [PMID: 37765165 PMCID: PMC10534486 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15092195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Tofacitinib, an inhibitor of Janus kinases (JAKs) 1 and 3, has been shown to be effective in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. The incidence of hyperlipidemia has been found to be higher in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. The present study therefore investigated the pharmacokinetics of tofacitinib after its intravenous (10 mg/kg) or oral (20 mg/kg) administration in poloxamer-407-induced hyperlipidemic (PHL) rats. The area under the plasma concentration-time curve from zero to infinity (AUC0-∞) after intravenous administration of tofacitinib was 73.5% higher in PHL than in control rats, owing to slower time-averaged nonrenal clearance (CLNR) in the former. Evaluation of in vitro metabolism showed that the intrinsic clearance (CLint) of tofacitinib was 38.6% lower in PHL than in control rats, owing to the decreased protein expression of hepatic cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A1/2 and CYP2C11 in PHL rats. Similar results were observed in PHL rats after oral administration of tofacitinib. These results were likely due to the decreased CLNR, CLint, and P-glycoprotein (P-gp) expression in the intestines of PHL compared to control rats. Overall, these findings indicated that hyperlipidemia slowed the metabolism of tofacitinib, increasing its plasma concentrations, and that this reduced metabolism was due to alterations in expression of the proteins CYP3A1/2, CYP2C11, and P-gp in the liver and/or intestines of PHL rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong Mun Won
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeon Gyeom Choi
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Republic of Korea
| | - So Yeon Park
- Department of Biohealth Regulatory Science, Graduate School of Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Republic of Korea
| | - Jang-Hee Kim
- Department of Pathology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Republic of Korea
| | - So Hee Kim
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biohealth Regulatory Science, Graduate School of Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Republic of Korea
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3
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Suo Y, Wright NJ, Guterres H, Fedor JG, Butay KJ, Borgnia MJ, Im W, Lee SY. Molecular basis of polyspecific drug and xenobiotic recognition by OCT1 and OCT2. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2023; 30:1001-1011. [PMID: 37291422 PMCID: PMC10895701 DOI: 10.1038/s41594-023-01017-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
A wide range of endogenous and xenobiotic organic ions require facilitated transport systems to cross the plasma membrane for their disposition. In mammals, organic cation transporter (OCT) subtypes 1 and 2 (OCT1 and OCT2, also known as SLC22A1 and SLC22A2, respectively) are polyspecific transporters responsible for the uptake and clearance of structurally diverse cationic compounds in the liver and kidneys, respectively. Notably, it is well established that human OCT1 and OCT2 play central roles in the pharmacokinetics and drug-drug interactions of many prescription medications, including metformin. Despite their importance, the basis of polyspecific cationic drug recognition and the alternating access mechanism for OCTs have remained a mystery. Here we present four cryo-electron microscopy structures of apo, substrate-bound and drug-bound OCT1 and OCT2 consensus variants, in outward-facing and outward-occluded states. Together with functional experiments, in silico docking and molecular dynamics simulations, these structures uncover general principles of organic cation recognition by OCTs and provide insights into extracellular gate occlusion. Our findings set the stage for a comprehensive structure-based understanding of OCT-mediated drug-drug interactions, which will prove critical in the preclinical evaluation of emerging therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Suo
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Nicholas J Wright
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Hugo Guterres
- Departments of Biological Sciences, Chemistry, and Bioengineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, USA
| | - Justin G Fedor
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Kevin John Butay
- Genome Integrity and Structural Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Mario J Borgnia
- Genome Integrity and Structural Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Wonpil Im
- Departments of Biological Sciences, Chemistry, and Bioengineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, USA
| | - Seok-Yong Lee
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA.
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Suo Y, Wright NJ, Guterres H, Fedor JG, Butay KJ, Borgnia MJ, Im W, Lee SY. Molecular basis of polyspecific drug binding and transport by OCT1 and OCT2. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.03.15.532610. [PMID: 36993738 PMCID: PMC10055046 DOI: 10.1101/2023.03.15.532610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
Abstract
A wide range of endogenous and xenobiotic organic ions require facilitated transport systems to cross the plasma membrane for their disposition 1, 2 . In mammals, organic cation transporter subtypes 1 and 2 (OCT1 and OCT2, also known as SLC22A1 and SLC22A2, respectively) are polyspecific transporters responsible for the uptake and clearance of structurally diverse cationic compounds in the liver and kidneys, respectively 3, 4 . Notably, it is well established that human OCT1 and OCT2 play central roles in the pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and drug-drug interactions (DDI) of many prescription medications, including metformin 5, 6 . Despite their importance, the basis of polyspecific cationic drug recognition and the alternating access mechanism for OCTs have remained a mystery. Here, we present four cryo-EM structures of apo, substrate-bound, and drug-bound OCT1 and OCT2 in outward-facing and outward-occluded states. Together with functional experiments, in silico docking, and molecular dynamics simulations, these structures uncover general principles of organic cation recognition by OCTs and illuminate unexpected features of the OCT alternating access mechanism. Our findings set the stage for a comprehensive structure-based understanding of OCT-mediated DDI, which will prove critical in the preclinical evaluation of emerging therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Suo
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, 27710, USA
| | - Nicholas J. Wright
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, 27710, USA
| | - Hugo Guterres
- Departments of Biological Sciences, Chemistry, and Bioengineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 18015, USA
| | - Justin G. Fedor
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, 27710, USA
| | - Kevin John Butay
- Genome Integrity and Structural Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Mario J. Borgnia
- Genome Integrity and Structural Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Wonpil Im
- Departments of Biological Sciences, Chemistry, and Bioengineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 18015, USA
| | - Seok-Yong Lee
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, 27710, USA
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5
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Zhuang Y, Sun Q, Jing T, Liu J, Meng H, Cao Y, Qiu Z, Sun J, Li N. Contributions of intestine and liver to the absorption and disposition of FZJ-003, a selective JAK1 inhibitor with structure modification of filgotinib. Eur J Pharm Sci 2022; 175:106211. [PMID: 35605911 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2022.106211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
FZJ-003 is a selective Janus kinase 1 (JAK1) inhibitor with structural modification of filgotinib for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) treatment. In this study, a series of in vivo and in vitro experiments were conducted to investigate the specific contribution of the intestine and liver to the disposition of FZJ-003 compared with filgotinib. Results showed that FZJ-003 exhibited over 2-fold higher systemic exposure and lower clearance than those of filgotinib, after intravenous or intragastric administration at the equivalent mole dose level to conscious rats. In anesthetized rats treated with different dosing routes, FZJ-003 exhibited higher intestinal bioavailability (Fa•Fg, 98.47 vs 34.54%) but lower hepatic bioavailability (Fh, 61.45 vs 92.07%). Permeability test in Caco-2 cells indicated that FZJ-003 was probably transported by passive diffusion (efflux ratio 1.37 < 2, indicating the approximately equivalent Papp values in two directions) with a little higher permeability (Papp,AP-to-BL, 1.42 × 10-6vs 1.01 × 10-6 cm•s-1, FZJ-003 vs filgotinib). Metabolic studies in pre-systemic incubation systems showed that FZJ-003 experienced more NADPH-dependent metabolism, especially in hepatic microsomes fractions. Unlike filgotinib, there was no obvious amide-hydrolyzed metabolite of FZJ-003 detected throughout the pre-systemic metabolic sites. Collectively, these data suggest that the higher systemic exposure of FZJ-003 than filgotinib is mainly attributed to the higher intestinal bioavailability including bypassing the amide hydrolysis and possible efflux by intestinal epithelial cells, which strongly support the structural design purpose in terms of pharmacokinetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhuang
- School of Traditional Chinese Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Qiushuang Sun
- School of Traditional Chinese Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Tian Jing
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jia Liu
- Pharmaceutical Animal Experimental Center, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Haitao Meng
- Shimadzu (China) Co., LTD., Nanjing Branch, Nanjing, China
| | - Yaqi Cao
- Shanghai Fudan-Zhangjiang Bio-Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. Shanghai, China
| | - Zhixia Qiu
- School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China.
| | - Junen Sun
- Shanghai Fudan-Zhangjiang Bio-Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. Shanghai, China.
| | - Ning Li
- National Experimental Teaching Demonstration Center of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China.
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Lactobacillus rhamnosus induces CYP3A and changes the pharmacokinetics of verapamil in rats. Toxicol Lett 2021; 352:46-53. [PMID: 34600097 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2021.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Verapamil, a calcium channel blocker, has been approved as the first-line drug for treatment of angina pectoris, hypertension and supraventricular tachycardia. Lactobacillus rhamnosus, one of the normal strains in human intestinal tract, is very popular in the probiotic market for conferring a health benefit on the host. This report investigated the potential of gut microbiota-drug interactions between lactobacillus rhamnosus and verapamil via using wild type (WT) and Cyp3a1/2 knockout (KO) rats. In WT rats, administration of Lactobacillus rhamnosus for 14 days decreased systemic exposure of verapamil and increased its metabolite norverapamil in vivo, and resulted in gut microbiota-drug interactions. In Cyp3a1/2 KO rats, however, this interaction disappeared. Further studies found that Lactobacillus rhamnosus induced CYP3A activity and expression, and changed the composition of gut microbiota, thus changing the pharmacokinetics of verapamil. These results demonstrated the interaction between lactobacillus rhamnosus and verapamil, and indicated that the effect of gut microbiota on metabolic enzymes cannot be ignored.
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Pharmacokinetic Interaction between Metformin and Verapamil in Rats: Inhibition of the OCT2-Mediated Renal Excretion of Metformin by Verapamil. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12050468. [PMID: 32455555 PMCID: PMC7284374 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12050468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2020] [Revised: 05/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The incidence of hypertension in diabetic patients has been increasing and contributing to the high mortality of diabetic patients. Recently, verapamil use was found to lower fasting blood glucose levels in diabetic patients, which led to a new indication of verapamil as combination treatment with anti-diabetic agents such as metformin. As pharmacokinetic (PK) interaction can affect drug efficacy and safety in drug combination, their PK-based interaction is recommended to be evaluated in preclinical levels as well as clinical levels. In case of metformin and verapamil, organic cation transporter (OCT) 1 and 2 primarily mediate metformin distribution to the liver and its elimination into urine, whereas cytochrome P450 is responsible for the hepatic metabolism of verapamil. Verapamil is also known as a potential OCT2 inhibitor. Thus, PK interaction between metformin (30 mg/kg) and verapamil (20 mg/kg) were investigated after their simultaneous administration to rats. In our results, verapamil inhibited the OCT2-mediated renal excretion of metformin, subsequently leading to increase of the systemic exposure of metformin. In contrast, metformin did not influence the pharmacokinetic pattern of verapamil. Although the further clinical investigation is required, our finding suggests a possibility of OCT2-mediated interaction of metformin and verapamil.
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Yao H, Wang C, Lu W, Li W, Jing W, Zhang J, Yang G, Zeng A. Comparative pharmacokinetics of verapamil and norverapamil in normal and ulcerative colitis rats after oral administration of low and high dose verapamil by UPLC-MS/MS. Xenobiotica 2019; 50:713-721. [PMID: 31633443 DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2019.1682715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
In this study, UC rat model was established by administration of 5% (w/v) dextran sulfate sodium, and the pharmacokinetics of verapamil and norverapamil were evaluated in normal and UC rats using UPLC-MS/MS after oral administration of 5 mg/kg and 50 mg/kg verapamil.The peak concentration (Cmax) and the area under plasma concentration-time curves (AUC) of verapamil in UC rats after oral administration of 5 mg/kg were significantly greater (2.5 times and 2 times, respectively) than those in normal rats, but the clearance rate (Cl) was significantly lower (by 50%). For norverapamil, Cmax and AUC were significantly greater (2.8 times and 2.5 times, respectively), and Cl was significantly lower (by 45%). But, pharmacokinetic parameters of verapamil and norverapamil after oral administration of 50 mg/kg were no significant differences between UC and normal rats.The better absorption and poor excretion for low-dose verapamil may be attributed to down-regulation of P-gp expression in the intestine and kidney. No significant differences of pharmacokinetic parameters for high-dose verapamil may be explained as the saturation of an efflux mechanism.The findings of this study suggested that in UC patients, doses of verapamil should be decreased when low-dose verapamil was orally administrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongping Yao
- First Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 277 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, China.,School of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Changhe Wang
- Shaanxi Institute for Food and Drug Control, Xi'an, China
| | - Wen Lu
- School of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Wen Li
- School of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Wanghui Jing
- School of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Jiye Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Guangde Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Aiguo Zeng
- School of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
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Lee U, Kwon MH, Kang HE. Pharmacokinetic alterations in poloxamer 407-induced hyperlipidemic rats. Xenobiotica 2018; 49:611-625. [PMID: 29658375 DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2018.1466212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
1. Plasma lipid profile abnormalities in hyperlipidemia can potentially alter the pharmacokinetics of a drug in a complex manner. To evaluate these pharmacokinetic alterations in hyperlipidemia and to determine the underlying mechanism(s), poloxamer 407-induced hyperlipidemic rats (HL rats), a well-established animal model of hyperlipidemia have been used. 2. In this review, we summarize findings on the pathophysiological and gene expression changes in drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters in HL rats. We discuss pharmacokinetic changes in drugs metabolized primarily via hepatic cytochrome P450 (CYPs) in terms of alterations in hepatic intrinsic clearance (CL'int), free fraction in plasma (fu) and hepatic blood flow rate (QH), depending on the hepatic excretion ratio, as well as drugs eliminated primarily by mechanisms other than hepatic CYPs. 3. For lipoprotein-bound drugs, increased binding to lipoproteins resulted in lower fu values and volumes of distribution, with some exceptions. Generally, slower non-renal clearance (or total body clearance) of drugs that are substrates of hepatic CYP3A and CYP2C is well explained by the following factors: alterations in CL'int (due to down-regulation of hepatic CYPs), decreased fu and/or possible decreased QH. 4. These consistent findings across studies in HL rats suggest more studies are needed at the clinical level for optimal pharmacotherapies for hyperlipidemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Unji Lee
- a Department of Pharmacy , Ewha Womans University Medical Center , Seoul , South Korea
| | - Mi Hye Kwon
- b College of Pharmacy and Integrated Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences , The Catholic University of Korea , Bucheon , South Korea
| | - Hee Eun Kang
- b College of Pharmacy and Integrated Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences , The Catholic University of Korea , Bucheon , South Korea
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Wang X, Zheng M, Liu J, Huang Z, Bai Y, Ren Z, Wang Z, Tian Y, Qiao Z, Liu W, Feng F. Differences of first-pass effect in the liver and intestine contribute to the stereoselective pharmacokinetics of rhynchophylline and isorhynchophylline epimers in rats. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2017; 209:175-183. [PMID: 28755970 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2017.07.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2017] [Revised: 07/02/2017] [Accepted: 07/26/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Uncaria rhynchophylla (Miq.) Miq. ex Havil., is a plant species used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat cardiovascular and central nervous system diseases. Rhynchophylline (RIN) and isorhynchophylline (IRN), a pair of epimers, are major alkaloids isolated from U. rhynchophylla and exhibit diverse pharmacological effects. Our previous study demonstrated that the pharmacokinetics of these epimers existed stereoselectivity after oral administration; however, the specific mechanism remains unknown and merits investigation. AIM OF THE STUDY In the present study, the aim was to elucidate the mechanism underlying stereoselective pharmacokinetic characteristics of RIN and IRN in rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS The total (F), hepatic (Fh) and intestinal (Fa·Fg) bioavailabilities of each epimer were measured using portal vein cannulated rats following different dosing routes (intravenous, intraportal and intraduodenal) to assess individual contributions of the liver and intestine in stereoselective pharmacokinetics. Then the differences of first-pass metabolism in the liver and intestine between two epimers were evaluated by in vitro incubation with rat liver microsomes, intestinal S9 and gastrointestinal (GI) content solutions, respectively. Meanwhile, the membrane permeability and efflux by P-glycoprotein (P-gp) were examined by in situ single-pass intestinal perfusion with and without P-gp inhibitor verapamil. The configurational interconversion at different pH values and the excretions via feces and urine were also examined. RESULTS Pharmacokinetic data showed that the total bioavailability of RIN was 5.9 folds higher than that of IRN (23.4% vs. 4.0%). The hepatic availability of RIN was 4.6 folds higher than that of IRN (46.9% vs. 10.3%), whereas the intestinal availability of RIN (48.1%) was comparable to that of IRN (42.7%). In addition, intestinal perfusion showed that IRN possessed higher intestinal permeability than RIN and co-perfusion with verapamil could affect absorption process of RIN but not IRN. Conversely, the metabolism rate of IRN in rat liver microsomes was significantly faster than that of RIN, resulting in a lower systemic exposure of IRN after oral administration. The degradation in GI lumen and epimerization between two epimers also existed but had small contributions. Additionally, the excretions of both epimers via feces and urine were negligible. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, different first-pass metabolism in the liver was the major factor responsible for the stereoselective pharmacokinetics of RIN and IRN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Mei Zheng
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Jia Liu
- Pharmic Laboratory Animal Center, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Zhifeng Huang
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Yidan Bai
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Zhuoying Ren
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Ziwen Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Yangli Tian
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Zhou Qiao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Wenyuan Liu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; Key Laboratory of Drug Quality Control and Pharmacovigilance, Ministry of Education, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Feng Feng
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Functional Materials, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
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Nicolaï J, De Bruyn T, Van Veldhoven PP, Keemink J, Augustijns P, Annaert P. Verapamil hepatic clearance in four preclinical rat models: towards activity-based scaling. Biopharm Drug Dispos 2015; 36:462-80. [PMID: 25963583 DOI: 10.1002/bdd.1959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2014] [Revised: 01/09/2015] [Accepted: 04/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The current study was designed to cross-validate rat liver microsomes (RLM), suspended rat hepatocytes (SRH) and the isolated perfused rat liver (IPRL) model against in vivo pharmacokinetic data, using verapamil as a model drug. Michaelis-Menten constants (Km), for the metabolic disappearance kinetics of verapamil in RLM and SRH (freshly isolated and cryopreserved), were determined and corrected for non-specific binding. The 'unbound' Km determined with RLM (2.8 µM) was divided by the 'unbound' Km determined with fresh and cryopreserved SRH (3.9 µM and 2.1 µM, respectively) to calculate the ratio of intracellular to extracellular unbound concentration (Kpu,u). Kpu,u was significantly different between freshly isolated (0.71) and cryopreserved (1.31) SRH, but intracellular capacity for verapamil metabolism was maintained after cryopreservation (200 vs. 191 µl/min/million cells). Direct comparison of intrinsic clearance values (Clint) in RLM versus SRH, yielded an activity-based scaling factor (SF) of 0.28-0.30 mg microsomal protein/million cells (MPPMC). Merging the IPRL-derived Clint with the MPPMC and SRH data, resulted in scaling factors for MPPGL (80 and 43 mg microsomal protein/g liver) and HPGL (269 and 153 million cells/g liver), respectively. Likewise, the hepatic blood flow (61 ml/min/kg b.wt) was calculated using IPRL Clint and the in vivo Cl. The scaling factors determined here are consistent with previously reported CYP450-content based scaling factors. Overall, the results show that integrated interpretation of data obtained with multiple preclinical tools (i.e. RLM, SRH, IPRL) can contribute to more reliable estimates for scaling factors and ultimately to improved in vivo clearance predictions based on in vitro experimentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Nicolaï
- Drug Delivery and Disposition, KU Leuven Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, O&N2, Leuven, Belgium
| | - T De Bruyn
- Drug Delivery and Disposition, KU Leuven Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, O&N2, Leuven, Belgium
| | - P P Van Veldhoven
- Laboratory of Lipid Biochemistry and Protein Interactions, KU Leuven Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, O&N1, Leuven, Belgium
| | - J Keemink
- Drug Delivery and Disposition, KU Leuven Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, O&N2, Leuven, Belgium
| | - P Augustijns
- Drug Delivery and Disposition, KU Leuven Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, O&N2, Leuven, Belgium
| | - P Annaert
- Drug Delivery and Disposition, KU Leuven Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, O&N2, Leuven, Belgium
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Yang QJ, Si L, Tang H, Sveigaard HH, Chow ECY, Pang KS. PBPK Modeling to Unravel Nonlinear Pharmacokinetics of Verapamil to Estimate the Fractional Clearance for Verapamil N-Demethylation in the Recirculating Rat Liver Preparation. Drug Metab Dispos 2015; 43:631-45. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.114.062265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
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13
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Jatczak M, Muylaert K, De Coen LM, Keemink J, Wuyts B, Augustijns P, Stevens CV. Straightforward entry to pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine-2,4(1H,3H)-diones and their ADME properties. Bioorg Med Chem 2014; 22:3947-56. [PMID: 24984938 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2014.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2014] [Revised: 06/02/2014] [Accepted: 06/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A straightforward synthesis of pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine-2,4(1H,3H)-diones was developed starting from 2-chloropyridine-3-carboxylic acid by esterification, nucleophilic aromatic substitution and amide formation in one step, and ring closure allowing their synthesis with two identical or two different group attached to nitrogen. The structural diversity of these [2,3-d]pyrimidine-2,4(1H,3H)-diones resulted in significant variation in the biopharmaceutical properties. This was reflected by the broad range in fasted state simulated intestinal fluid solubility values (12.6 μM to 13.8 mM), Caco-2 permeability coefficients (1.2 × 10(-6)cm/s to 90.7 × 10(-6)cm/s) and in vitro-predicted human in vivo intrinsic clearance values (0 to 159 ml/min/kg).
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Affiliation(s)
- Martyna Jatczak
- Research Group SynBioC, Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Koen Muylaert
- Research Group SynBioC, Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Laurens M De Coen
- Research Group SynBioC, Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Janneke Keemink
- Drug Delivery and Disposition, Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, KU Leuven, O&N II Herestraat 49-box 921, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Benjamin Wuyts
- Drug Delivery and Disposition, Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, KU Leuven, O&N II Herestraat 49-box 921, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Patrick Augustijns
- Drug Delivery and Disposition, Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, KU Leuven, O&N II Herestraat 49-box 921, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Christian V Stevens
- Research Group SynBioC, Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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14
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Shin BS, Yoo SD, Kim TH, Bulitta JB, Landersdorfer CB, Shin JC, Choi JH, Weon KY, Joo SH, Shin S. Quantitative Determination of Absorption and First-Pass Metabolism of Apicidin, a Potent Histone Deacetylase Inhibitor. Drug Metab Dispos 2014; 42:974-82. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.113.056713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
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15
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Yang JJ, Tao H, Huang C, Li J. Nuclear erythroid 2-related factor 2: a novel potential therapeutic target for liver fibrosis. Food Chem Toxicol 2013; 59:421-7. [PMID: 23793039 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2013] [Revised: 06/10/2013] [Accepted: 06/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Hepatic stellate cells (HSC) are the key fibrogenic cells of the liver. HSC activation is a process of cellular transdifferentiation that occurs upon liver injury, but the mechanisms underlying liver fibrosis are unknown. Nuclear erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is an oxidative stress-mediated transcription factor with a variety of downstream targets aimed at cytoprotection. However, Nrf2 has recently been implicated as a new therapeutic target for the treatment of liver fibrosis. This review focuses on the transcriptional repressors that either control liver injury or regulate specific fibrogenic functions of liver fibrosis. We also show that Nrf2 may reveal significant gene expression changes, suggesting that Nrf2 activation may ameliorate liver fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Jing Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, China
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16
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Lee YS, Yoon JN, Yoon IS, Lee MG, Kang HE. Pharmacokinetics of verapamil and its metabolite norverapamil in rats with hyperlipidaemia induced by poloxamer 407. Xenobiotica 2013; 42:766-74. [PMID: 22300394 DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2011.654001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
In this study, the pharmacokinetics of verapamil and its active metabolite norverapamil were evaluated following intravenous and oral administration of 10 mg/kg verapamil to rats with hyperlipidaemia (HL) induced by poloxamer 407 (HL rats). The total area under the plasma concentration time curve (AUC) of verapamil in HL rats following intravenous administration was significantly greater (by 11.2%) than in control rats due to their slower (by 11%) non-renal clearance. The oral AUC of verapamil in HL rats was also significantly greater (by 116%) compared with controls, with a larger magnitude than the data observed following intravenous administration. This may have been a result of the decreased intestinal metabolism of verapamil in HL rats. The AUC of norverapamil and AUC(norverapamil)/AUC(verapamil) ratios following intravenous and oral administration of verapamil were unchanged in HL rats. Assuming that the HL rat model qualitatively reflects similar changes in patients with HL, the findings of this study have potential therapeutic implications. Further studies in humans are required to determine whether modification of the oral verapamil dosage regimen in HL states is necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Sun Lee
- College of Pharmacy, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon, South Korea
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17
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Yin J, Qiu H, Dai J, Lu Y, Zhao R, Chen L, Meng Q. Prediction of hepatic plasma clearance in vivo from gel-entrapped rat and human hepatocytes. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2013; 91:178-86. [DOI: 10.1139/cjpp-2012-0334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This paper aimed to evaluate the applicability of gel-entrapped rat and human hepatocytes in the prediction of hepatic plasma clearance (CLh,plasma) in vivo. The in vitro intrinsic clearances (CLint,in vitro) for the selected compounds were determined from the substrate disappearance rate, and further used to predict CLh,plasma using 3 classical mathematical models (well-stirred, parallel-tube, and dispersion) and disregarding drug binding. As a result, the predicted values from gel-entrapped rat hepatocytes were mostly within 2 SE of the literature data with a high correlation coefficient (R2) of 0.88–0.91. The predicted data with human hepatocytes also fitted well with the clinical data, indicating a high accuracy in prediction of in-vivo clearance. With respect to the mathematical model for predicting CLh,plasma, the parallel-tube and dispersion models produced a better prediction than the well-stirred model, and we suggest using the parallel-tube model because it is less complex mathematically. In conclusion, gel-entrapped hepatocytes predicted the drug clearance well and seemed to be a useful tool in the process of drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Yin
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Zhejiang University, 38 Zheda Road, Zhejiang 310027, P.R. China
| | - Hongxia Qiu
- Roche R&D Center (China) Ltd., Building 5, 720 Cailun Road, Shanghai 201203, P.R. China
| | - Jing Dai
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Zhejiang University, 38 Zheda Road, Zhejiang 310027, P.R. China
| | - Yanhua Lu
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Zhejiang University, 38 Zheda Road, Zhejiang 310027, P.R. China
| | - Rong Zhao
- Roche R&D Center (China) Ltd., Building 5, 720 Cailun Road, Shanghai 201203, P.R. China
| | - Li Chen
- Roche R&D Center (China) Ltd., Building 5, 720 Cailun Road, Shanghai 201203, P.R. China
| | - Qin Meng
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Zhejiang University, 38 Zheda Road, Zhejiang 310027, P.R. China
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18
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Zhang Y, Li X, Shen Z, Xu X, Zhang P, Wang P, Zhou Z. Stereoselective metabolism of fenoxaprop-ethyl and its chiral metabolite fenoxaprop in rabbits. Chirality 2011; 23:897-903. [DOI: 10.1002/chir.21009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2010] [Accepted: 06/29/2011] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Komura H, Iwaki M. In vitro and in vivo small intestinal metabolism of CYP3A and UGT substrates in preclinical animals species and humans: species differences. Drug Metab Rev 2011; 43:476-98. [PMID: 21859377 DOI: 10.3109/03602532.2011.597401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Intestinal first-pass metabolism has a great impact on the bioavailability of cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A) and/or uridine 5'-diphosphate (UDP)-glucoronosyltranferase (UGT) substrates in humans. In vitro and in vivo intestinal metabolism studies are essential for clarifying pharmacokinetics in animal species and for predicting the effects of human intestinal metabolism. We review species differences in intestinal metabolism both in vitro and in vivo. Based on mRNA expression levels, the major intestinal CYP3A isoform is CYP3A4 for humans, CYP3A4 (3A8) for monkeys, CYP3A9 for rats, cyp3a13 for mice, and CYP3A12 for dogs. Additionally, the intestinal-specific UGT would be UGT1A10 for humans, UGT1A8 for monkeys, and UGT1A7 for rats. In vitro and in vivo intestinal metabolism of CYP3A substrates were larger in monkeys than in humans, although a correlation in intestinal availability between monkeys and humans has been reported. Little information is available regarding species differences in in vitro and in vivo UGT activities; however, UGT-mediated in vivo intestinal metabolism has been demonstrated for raloxifene in humans and for baicalein in rats. Further assessment of intestinal metabolism, particularly for UGT substrates, is required to clarify the entire picture of species differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Komura
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Central Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Japan Tobacco Inc., Osaka, Japan.
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20
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Anger GJ, Piquette-Miller M. Mechanisms of Reduced Maternal and Fetal Lopinavir Exposure in a Rat Model of Gestational Diabetes. Drug Metab Dispos 2011; 39:1850-9. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.111.040626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
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21
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Hu N, Xie S, Liu L, Wang X, Pan X, Chen G, Zhang L, Liu H, Liu X, Liu X, Xie L, Wang G. Opposite effect of diabetes mellitus induced by streptozotocin on oral and intravenous pharmacokinetics of verapamil in rats. Drug Metab Dispos 2010; 39:419-25. [PMID: 21135265 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.110.035642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to report the effect of diabetes mellitus on the pharmacokinetics of verapamil in a route-dependent manner. Diabetes in rats was induced by streptozotocin. Plasma concentrations of verapamil and its metabolite, norverapamil, were measured after oral (10 mg/kg) or intravenous (1 mg/kg) administration. The concentrations of verapamil in portal plasma after oral administration were also determined. Norverapamil formation was used for assessing CYP3A activity in hepatic and intestinal microsomes of diabetic rats. The protein levels of CYP3A1 and CYP3A2 in liver and intestine were measured by Western blot. It was found that diabetes significantly increased the plasma concentration of verapamil and norverapamil after oral administration, which resulted in a 74% increase in the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) of verapamil, but the ratio of AUC((norverapamil))/AUC((verapamil)) was significantly decreased by 38%. In contrast, diabetes significantly decreased the AUC of verapamil by 22% after intravenous administration. Diabetes also resulted in increased AUC of verapamil in portal vein by 3.8-fold compared with that in control rats. The absolute bioavailability of verapamil was higher than that of control rats. An in vitro study showed that increased CYP3A activity in the hepatic microsome and decreased CYP3A activity in the intestinal microsome were accompanied by an increase and decrease in the protein expression of CYP3A1/2 in liver and intestine of diabetic rats, respectively. In conclusion, diabetes mellitus revealed a tissue-specific effect on CYP3A activity and expression (induced in liver and inhibited in intestine), resulting in opposite pharmacokinetic behaviors of verapamil after oral and intravenous administration to diabetic rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Hu
- Key Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
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Thörn HA, Hedeland M, Bondesson U, Knutson L, Yasin M, Dickinson P, Lennernäs H. Different Effects of Ketoconazole on the Stereoselective First-Pass Metabolism of R/S-Verapamil in the Intestine and the Liver: Important for the Mechanistic Understanding of First-Pass Drug-Drug Interactions. Drug Metab Dispos 2009; 37:2186-96. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.109.028027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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