Protein electrophile-binding motifs: lysine-rich proteins are preferential targets of quinones

Multi-adductomics: Advancing mass spectrometry techniques for comprehensive exposome characterization

Adductomics, an emerging field within the 'omics sciences, focuses on the formation and prevalence of DNA, RNA, and protein adducts induced by endogenous and exogenous agents in biological systems. These modifications often result from exposure to environmental pollutants, dietary components, and xenobiotics, impacting cellular functions and potentially leading to diseases such as cancer. This review highlights advances in mass spectrometry (MS) that enhance the detection of these critical modifications and discusses current and emerging trends in adductomics, including developments in MS instrument use, screening techniques, and the study of various biomolecular modifications from mono-adducts to complex hybrid crosslinks between different types of biomolecules. The review also considers challenges, including the need for specialized MS spectra databases and multi-omics integration, while emphasizing techniques to distinguish between exogenous and endogenous modifications. The future of adductomics possesses significant potential for enhancing our understanding of health in relation to environmental exposures and precision medicine.

Building an Understanding of Proteostasis in Reproductive Cells: The Impact of Reactive Carbonyl Species on Protein Fate

Significance: Stringent regulation of protein homeostasis pathways, under both physiological and pathological conditions, is necessary for the maintenance of proteome fidelity and optimal cell functioning. However, when challenged by endogenous or exogenous stressors, these proteostasis pathways can become dysregulated with detrimental consequences for protein fate, cell survival, and overall organism health. Most notably, there are numerous somatic pathologies associated with a loss of proteostatic regulation, including neurodegenerative disorders, type 2 diabetes, and some cancers. Recent Advances: Lipid oxidation-derived reactive carbonyl species (RCS), such as 4-hydroxynonenal (4HNE) and malondialdehyde, are relatively underappreciated purveyors of proteostatic dysregulation, which elicit their effects via the nonenzymatic post-translational modification of proteins. Emerging evidence suggests that a subset of germline proteins can serve as substrates for 4HNE modification. Among these, prevalent targets include succinate dehydrogenase, heat shock protein A2 and A-kinase anchor protein 4, all of which are intrinsically associated with fertility. Critical Issues: Despite growing knowledge in this field, the RCS adductomes of spermatozoa and oocytes are yet to be comprehensively investigated. Furthermore, the manner by which RCS-mediated adduction impacts protein fate and drives cellular responses, such as protein aggregation, requires further examination in the germline. Given that RCS-protein adduction has been attributed a role in infertility, there has been sparked research investment into strategies to prevent lipid peroxidation in germ cells. Future Directions: An increased depth of knowledge regarding the mechanisms and substrates of RCS-mediated protein modification in reproductive cells may reveal important targets for the development of novel therapies to improve fertility and pregnancy outcomes for future generations.

Role of Protein Damage Inflicted by Dopamine Metabolites in Parkinson's Disease: Evidence, Tools, and Outlook

Dopamine is an important neurotransmitter that plays a critical role in motivational salience and motor coordination. However, dysregulated dopamine metabolism can result in the formation of reactive electrophilic metabolites which generate covalent adducts with proteins. Such protein damage can impair native protein function and lead to neurotoxicity, ultimately contributing to Parkinson's disease etiology. In this Review, the role of dopamine-induced protein damage in Parkinson's disease is discussed, highlighting the novel chemical tools utilized to drive this effort forward. Continued innovation of methodologies which enable detection, quantification, and functional response elucidation of dopamine-derived protein adducts is critical for advancing this field. Work in this area improves foundational knowledge of the molecular mechanisms that contribute to dopamine-mediated Parkinson's disease progression, potentially assisting with future development of therapeutic interventions.

Protein Adducts and Protein Oxidation as Molecular Mechanisms of Flavonoid Bioactivity

There are tens of thousands of scientific papers about flavonoids and their impacts on human health. However, despite the vast amount of energy that has been put toward studying these compounds, a unified molecular mechanism that explains their bioactivity remains elusive. One contributing factor to the absence of a general mechanistic explanation of their bioactivity is the complexity of flavonoid chemistry in aqueous solutions at neutral pH. Flavonoids have acidic protons, are redox active, and frequently auto-oxidize to produce an array of degradation products including electrophilic quinones. Flavonoids are also known to interact with specificity and high affinity with a variety of proteins, and there is evidence that some of these interactions may be covalent. This review summarizes the mechanisms of flavonoid oxidation in aqueous solutions at neutral pH and proposes the formation of protein-flavonoid adducts or flavonoid-induced protein oxidation as putative mechanisms of flavonoid bioactivity in cells. Nucleophilic residues in proteins may be able to form covalent bonds with flavonoid quinones; alternatively, specific amino acid residues such as cysteine, methionine, or tyrosine in proteins could be oxidized by flavonoids. In either case, these protein-flavonoid interactions would likely occur at specific binding sites and the formation of these types of products could effectively explain how flavonoids modify proteins in cells to induce downstream biochemical and cellular changes.

Antiglycating Effect of Phenolics from the Chilean Currant Ribes cucullatum under Thermal Treatment

Numerous dietary polyphenols possess antiglicating activity, but the effects of thermal treatment on this activity are mostly unknown. The effect of thermal treatment in the antiglycating activity of polyphenolic enriched extracts (PEEs) from Ribes cucullatum towards glyoxal-induced glycation of sarcoplasmic proteins was assessed. Sarcoplasmic proteins from chicken, beef, salmon, and turkey, were incubated 2 h at 60 °C with and without glyoxal and different concentrations of PEEs (0.25, 0.5, 1, and 5 mg/mL). The antiglycating activity was evaluated by: (1) Lys and Arg consumption, (2) Carboxymethyl lysine (CML) generation, and (3) lipid-derived electrophiles inhibition in a gastric digestion model. Protective effects were observed against CML generation in proteins and a decrease of electrophiles in the gastric digestion model. A dose-dependent consumption of Lys and Arg in proteins/PEEs samples, indicated the possible occurrence of quinoproteins generation from the phenolics. Protein/PEEs incubations were assessed by: (1) High pressure liquid chromatography analysis, (2) Gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), and (3) Redox cycling staining of quinoproteins. Protein/PEEs incubations produced: (1) Decrease in phenolics, (2) increase of protein crosslinking, and (3) dose-dependent generation of quinoproteins. We demonstrate that phenolic compounds from R. cucullatum under thermal treatment act as antiglycating agents, but oxidative reactions occurs at high concentrations, generating protein crosslinking and quinoproteins.

Biotin-Labelled Clavulanic Acid to Identify Proteins Target for Haptenation in Serum: Implications in Allergy Studies

Clavulanic acid (CLV) and amoxicillin, frequently administered in combination, can be independently involved in allergic reactions. Protein haptenation with β-lactams is considered necessary to activate the immune system. The aim of this study was to assess the suitability of biotinylated analogues of CLV as probes to study protein haptenation by this β-lactam. Two synthetic approaches afforded the labeling of CLV through esterification of its carboxylic group with a biotin moiety, via either direct binding (CLV-B) or tetraethylenglycol linker (CLV-TEG-B). The second analogue offered advantages as solubility in aqueous solution and potential lower steric hindrance for both intended interactions, with the protein and with avidin. NMR reactivity studies showed that both CLV and CLV-TEG-B reacts through β-lactam ring opening by aliphatic amino nitrogen, however with different stability of resulting conjugates. Unlike CLV conjugates, that promoted the decomposition of clavulanate fragment, the conjugates obtained with the CLV-TEG-B remained linked, as a whole structure including biotin, to nucleophile and showed a better stability. This was a desired key feature to allow CLV-TEG-B conjugated protein detection at great sensitivity. We have used biotin detection and mass spectrometry (MS) to detect the haptenation of human serum albumin (HSA) and human serum proteins. MS of conjugates showed that HSA could be modified by CLV-TEG-B. Remarkably, HSA preincubation with CLV excess only reduced moderately the incorporation of CLV-TEG-B, which could be attributed to different protein interferences. The CLV-TEG-B fragment with opened β-lactam was detected bound to the ^404-430HSA peptide of the treated protein. Incubation of human serum with CLV-TEG-B resulted in the haptenation of several proteins that were identified by 2D-electrophoresis and peptide mass fingerprinting as HSA, haptoglobin, and heavy and light chains of immunoglobulins. Taken together, our results show that tagged-CLV keeps some of the CLV features. Moreover, although we observe a different behavior in the conjugate stability and in the site of protein modification, the similar reactivity indicates that it could constitute a valuable tool to identify protein targets for haptenation by CLV with high sensitivity to get insights into the activation of the immune system by CLV and mechanisms involved in β-lactams allergy.

Antioxidant properties and potential mechanisms of hydrolyzed proteins and peptides from cereals

Cereals like wheat, rice, corn, barley, rye, oat, and millet are staple foods in many regions around the world and contribute to more than half of human energy requirements. Scientific publications contain evidence showing that apart from energy, the regular consumption of whole grains is useful for the prevention of many chronic diseases associated with oxidative stress. Biological activities have mostly been attributed to the presence of glucans and polyphenols. In recent years however, food proteins have been investigated as sources of peptides that can exert biological functions, promote health and prevent oxidative stress. This review focuses on the role of hydrolyzed proteins and peptides with antioxidant properties in various models and their mechanisms which include hydrogen or electron transfer, metal chelating, and regulation of enzymes involved in the oxidation-reduction process.

Redox Signaling by Reactive Electrophiles and Oxidants

The concept of cell signaling in the context of nonenzyme-assisted protein modifications by reactive electrophilic and oxidative species, broadly known as redox signaling, is a uniquely complex topic that has been approached from numerous different and multidisciplinary angles. Our Review reflects on five aspects critical for understanding how nature harnesses these noncanonical post-translational modifications to coordinate distinct cellular activities: (1) specific players and their generation, (2) physicochemical properties, (3) mechanisms of action, (4) methods of interrogation, and (5) functional roles in health and disease. Emphasis is primarily placed on the latest progress in the field, but several aspects of classical work likely forgotten/lost are also recollected. For researchers with interests in getting into the field, our Review is anticipated to function as a primer. For the expert, we aim to stimulate thought and discussion about fundamentals of redox signaling mechanisms and nuances of specificity/selectivity and timing in this sophisticated yet fascinating arena at the crossroads of chemistry and biology.

Reactivity of peptides within the food matrix

Numerous biological activities have been reported for peptides or peptide-rich fractions from hydrolyzed food proteins. Some of the properties of peptides include antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammation, antihypertensive, and immune system modulation. To evaluate the efficacy of peptides in vivo, foods have been used as carrier vehicles. However, there are many molecules in foods that can react or interact with peptides, thereby reducing the bioavailability or bioactivity of these peptides. The Schiff base reactions of peptides with reducing sugars are well established. Peptides can also react with oxidized lipids or reactive oxygen species. Secondary metabolites such as quinones in foods, can react as well with amine or thiol groups of peptides. All these reactions affect the concentration of peptides. This review summarizes and discusses some of the implication of those reactions on the availability of bioactive peptides within the food matrix. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Bioactive peptides possess specific effects on foods like preventing oxidative rancidity. In human, they may lower blood pressure or reduce inflammation. The knowledge on the type of reactions these peptides may encountered when foods are used as transport vehicles is essential. This will prevent variability in intake and ensure proper dosage and reproducible results.

Novel multifunctional dopamine D2/D3 receptors agonists with potential neuroprotection and anti-alpha synuclein protein aggregation properties

Our ongoing drug development endeavor to design compounds for symptomatic and neuroprotective treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD) led us to carry out a structure activity relationship study based on dopamine agonists pramipexole and 5-OHDPAT. Our goal was to incorporate structural elements in these agonists in a way to preserve their agonist activity while producing inhibitory activity against aggregation of α-synuclein protein. In our design we appended various catechol and related phenol derivatives to the parent agonists via different linker lengths. Structural optimization led to development of several potent agonists among which (-)-8a, (-)-14 and (-)-20 exhibited potent neuroprotective properties in a cellular PD model involving neurotoxin 6-OHDA. The lead compounds (-)-8a and (-)-14 were able to modulate aggregation of α-synuclein protein efficiently. Finally, in an in vivo PD animal model, compound (-)-8a exhibited efficacious anti-parkinsonian effect.

Characterization of quinone derived protein adducts and their selective identification using redox cycling based chemiluminescence assay

The cytotoxic mechanism of many quinones has been correlated to covalent modification of cellular proteins. However, the identification of relevant proteins targets is essential but challenging goals. To better understand the quinones cytotoxic mechanism, human serum albumin (HSA) was incubated in vitro with different concentration of menadione (MQ). In this respect, the initial nucleophilic addition of proteins to quinone converts the conjugates to redox-cycling quinoproteins with altered conformation and secondary structure and extended life span than the short lived, free quinones. The conjugation of MQ with nucleophilic sites likewise, free cysteine as well as ɛ-amino group of lysine residue of HSA has been found to be in concentration dependent manner. The conventional methods for modified proteins identification in complex mixtures are complicated and time consuming. Herein, we describe a highly selective, sensitive, simple, and fast strategy for quinoproteins identification. The suggested strategy exploited the unique redox-cycling capability of quinoproteins in presence of a reductant, dithiothreitol (DTT), to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) that gave sufficient chemiluminescence (CL) when mixed with luminol. The CL approach is highly selective and sensitive to detect the quinoproteins in ten-fold molar excess of native proteins without adduct enrichment. The approach was also coupled with gel filtration chromatography (GFC) and used to identify adducts in complex mixture of proteins in vitro as well as in rat plasma after MQ administration. Albumin was identified as the main protein in human and rat plasma forming adduct with MQ. Overall, the identification of quinoproteins will encourage further studies of toxicological impact of quinones on human health.

Using carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester to monitor intracellular protein glycation

Protein glycation is a ubiquitous process involved in vascular complications observed in diabetes. Glyoxal (GO), an intracellular reactive oxoaldehyde that is one of the most potent glycation agents, readily reacts with amines present on proteins to produce the lysine-derived adduct carboxymethyllysine, which is a prevalent advanced glycation end-product (AGE). Our group previously showed that cell exposure to GO leads to an alteration in the cell contractile activity that could occur as a result of the glycation of various proteins regulating the cell contractile machinery. Here, we measured the extent of glycation on three functionally distinct proteins known to participate in cell contraction and cytoskeletal organization-Rho-kinase (ROCK), actin, and gelsolin (GSN)-using an assay based on the reaction of the cell membrane-permeable fluorescent probe carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester (CFDA-SE), which reacts with primary amine groups of proteins. By combining CFDA-SE fluorescence and Western blot detection, we observed (following GO incubation) increased glycation of actin and ROCK as well as an increased interaction between actin and GSN as observed by co-immunoprecipitation. Thus, we conclude that the use of the fluorescent probe CFDA-SE offers an interesting alternative to perform a comparative analysis of the extent of intracellular protein glycation in live cells.

Chlorinated biphenyl quinones and phenyl-2,5-benzoquinone differentially modify the catalytic activity of human hydroxysteroid sulfotransferase hSULT2A1

Human hydroxysteroid sulfotransferase (hSULT2A1) catalyzes the sulfation of a broad range of environmental chemicals, drugs, and other xenobiotics in addition to endogenous compounds that include hydroxysteroids and bile acids. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are persistent environmental contaminants, and oxidized metabolites of PCBs may play significant roles in the etiology of their adverse health effects. Quinones derived from the oxidative metabolism of PCBs (PCB-quinones) react with nucleophilic sites in proteins and also undergo redox cycling to generate reactive oxygen species. This, along with the sensitivity of hSULT2A1 to oxidative modification at cysteine residues, led us to hypothesize that electrophilic PCB-quinones react with hSULT2A1 to alter its catalytic function. Thus, we examined the effects of four phenylbenzoquinones on the ability of hSULT2A1 to catalyze the sulfation of the endogenous substrate, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). The quinones studied were 2'-chlorophenyl-2,5-benzoquinone (2'-Cl-BQ), 4'-chlorophenyl-2,5-benzoquinone (4'-Cl-BQ), 4'-chlorophenyl-3,6-dichloro-2,5-benzoquinone (3,6,4'-triCl-BQ), and phenyl-2,5-benzoquinone (PBQ). At all concentrations examined, pretreatment of hSULT2A1 with the PCB-quinones decreased the catalytic activity of hSULT2A1. Pretreatment with low concentrations of PBQ, however, increased the catalytic activity of the enzyme, while higher concentrations inhibited catalysis. A decrease in substrate inhibition with DHEA was seen following preincubation of hSULT2A1 with all of the quinones. Proteolytic digestion of the enzyme followed by LC/MS analysis indicated PCB-quinone- and PBQ-adducts at Cys55 and Cys199, as well as oxidation products at methionines in the protein. Equilibrium binding experiments and molecular modeling suggested that changes due to these modifications may affect the nucleotide binding site and the entrance to the sulfuryl acceptor binding site of hSULT2A1.

Detection of electrophile-sensitive proteins

BACKGROUND

Redox signaling is an important emerging mechanism of cellular function. Dysfunctional redox signaling is increasingly implicated in numerous pathologies, including atherosclerosis, diabetes, and cancer. The molecular messengers in this type of signaling are reactive species which can mediate the post-translational modification of specific groups of proteins, thereby effecting functional changes in the modified proteins. Electrophilic compounds comprise one class of reactive species which can participate in redox signaling. Electrophiles modulate cell function via formation of covalent adducts with proteins, particularly cysteine residues.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

This review will discuss the commonly used methods of detection for electrophile-sensitive proteins, and will highlight the importance of identifying these proteins for studying redox signaling and developing novel therapeutics.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

There are several methods which can be used to detect electrophile-sensitive proteins. These include the use of tagged model electrophiles, as well as derivatization of endogenous electrophile-protein adducts.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

In order to understand the mechanisms by which electrophiles mediate redox signaling, it is necessary to identify electrophile-sensitive proteins and quantitatively assess adduct formation. Strengths and limitations of these methods will be discussed. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Current methods to study reactive oxygen species - pros and cons and biophysics of membrane proteins. Guest Editor: Christine Winterbourn.

A new look on protein-polyphenol complexation during honey storage: is this a random or organized event with the help of dirigent-like proteins?

Honey storage initiates melanoidin formation that involves a cascade of seemingly unguided redox reactions between amino acids/proteins, reducing sugars and polyphenols. In the process, high molecular weight protein-polyphenol complexes are formed, but the mechanism involved remains unknown. The objective of this study was twofold: to determine quantitative and qualitative changes in proteins in honeys stored for prolonged times and in different temperatures and to relate these changes to the formation of protein-polyphenol complexes. Six -month storage decreased the protein content by 46.7% in all tested honeys (t-test, p<0.002) with the rapid reduction occurring during the first three month. The changes in protein levels coincided with alterations in molecular size and net charge of proteins on SDS -PAGE. Electro-blotted proteins reacted with a quinone-specific nitro blue tetrazolium (NBT) on nitrocellulose membranes indicating that quinones derived from oxidized polyphenols formed covalent bonds with proteins. Protein-polyphenol complexes isolated by size-exclusion chromatography differed in size and stoichiometry and fall into two categories: (a) high molecular weight complexes (230-180 kDa) enriched in proteins but possessing a limited reducing activity toward the NBT and (b) lower molecular size complexes (110-85 kDa) enriched in polyphenols but strongly reducing the dye. The variable stoichiometry suggest that the large, "protein-type" complexes were formed by protein cross-linking, while in the smaller, "polyphenol-type" complexes polyphenols were first polymerized prior to protein binding. Quinones preferentially bound a 31 kDa protein which, by the electrospray quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (ESI-Qtof-MS) analysis, showed homology to dirigent-like proteins known for assisting in radical coupling and polymerization of phenolic compounds. These findings provide a new look on protein-polyphenol interaction in honey where the reaction of quinones with proteins and polyphenols could possibly be under assumed guidance of dirigent proteins.

Uniquely localized intra-molecular amino acid concentrations at the glycolytic enzyme catalytic/active centers of Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryota are associated with their proposed temporal appearances on earth

The distributions of amino acids at most-conserved sites nearest catalytic/active centers (C/AC) in 4,645 sequences of ten enzymes of the glycolytic Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway in Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryota are similar to the proposed temporal order of their appearance on Earth. Glycine, isoleucine, leucine, valine, glutamic acid and possibly lysine often described as prebiotic, i.e., existing or occurring before the emergence of life, were localized in positional and conservational defined aggregations in all enzymes of all Domains. The distributions of all 20 biologic amino acids in most-conserved sites nearest their C/ACs were quite different either from distributions in sites less-conserved and further from their C/ACs or from all amino acids regardless of their position or conservation. The major concentrations of glycine, e.g., perhaps the earliest prebiotic amino acid, occupies ≈ 16 % of all the most-conserved sites within a volume of ≈ 7-8 Å radius from their C/ACs and decreases linearly towards the molecule's peripheries. Spatially localized major concentrations of isoleucine, leucine and valine are in the mid-conserved and mid-distant sites from their C/ACs in protein interiors. Lysine and glutamic acid comprise ≈ 25-30 % of all amino acids within an irregular volume bounded by ≈ 24-28 Å radii from their C/ACs at the most-distant least-conserved sites. The unreported characteristics of these amino acids: their spatially and conservationally identified concentrations in Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryota, suggest some common structural organization of glycolytic enzymes that may be relevant to their evolution and that of other proteins. We discuss our data in relation to enzyme evolution, their reported prebiotic putative temporal appearances on Earth, abundances, biological "cost", neighbor-sequence preferences or "ordering" and some thermodynamic parameters.

Reactive intermediates: molecular and MS-based approaches to assess the functional significance of chemical-protein adducts

Biologically reactive intermediates formed as endogenous products of various metabolic processes are considered important factors in a variety of human diseases, including Parkinson's disease and other neurological disorders, diabetes and complications thereof, and other inflammatory-associated diseases. Chemical-induced toxicities are also frequently mediated via the bioactivation of relatively stable organic molecules to reactive electrophilic metabolites. Indeed, chemical-induced toxicities have long been known to be associated with the ability of electrophilic metabolites to react with a variety of targets within the cell, including their covalent adduction to nucleophilic residues in proteins, and nucleotides within DNA. Although we possess considerable knowledge of the various biochemical mechanisms by which chemicals undergo metabolic bioactivation, we understand far less about the processes that couple bioactivation to toxicity. Identifying specific sites within a protein, which are targets for adduction, can provide the initial information necessary to determine whether such adventitious posttranslational modifications significantly alter either protein structure and/or function. To address this problem, we have developed mass spectrometry (MS)-based approaches to identify specific amino acid targets of electrophile adduction (electrophile-binding motifs), coupled with molecular modeling of such adducts, to determine the potential structural and functional consequences. Where appropriate, functional assays are subsequently conducted to assess protein function.

The chemical biology of naphthoquinones and its environmental implications

Quinones are a group of highly reactive organic chemical species that interact with biological systems to promote inflammatory, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer actions and to induce toxicities. This review describes the chemistry, biochemistry, and cellular effects of 1,2- and 1,4-naphthoquinones and their derivatives. The naphthoquinones are of particular interest because of their prevalence as natural products and as environmental chemicals, present in the atmosphere as products of fuel and tobacco combustion. 1,2- and 1,4-naphthoquinones are also toxic metabolites of naphthalene, the major polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon present in ambient air. Quinones exert their actions through two reactions: as prooxidants, reducing oxygen to reactive oxygen species; and as electrophiles, forming covalent bonds with tissue nucleophiles. The targets for these reactions include regulatory proteins such as protein tyrosine phosphatases; Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1, the regulatory protein for NF-E2-related factor 2; and the glycolysis enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase. Through their actions on regulatory proteins, quinones affect various cell signaling pathways that promote and protect against inflammatory responses and cell damage. These actions vary with the specific quinone and its concentration. Effects of exposure to naphthoquinones as environmental chemicals can vary with the physical state, i.e., whether the quinone is particle bound or is in the vapor state. The exacerbation of pulmonary diseases by air pollutants can, in part, be attributed to quinone action.

Role of hydroquinone-thiol conjugates in benzene-mediated toxicity

Hydroquinone (HQ) is a metabolite of benzene, and in combination with phenol (PHE), reproduces benzene myelotoxicity. HQ readily oxidizes to 1,4-benzoquinone (1,4-BQ) followed by the reductive addition of glutathione (GSH). Subsequent cycles of oxidation and GSH addition give rise to a variety of mono-, and multi-GSH substituted conjugates. Following administration of PHE/HQ (1.1 mmol/kg/0.9 mmol/kg, ip) to male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats, 2-(glutathion-S-yl)HQ [GS-HQ], 2,5-bis-(glutathion-S-yl)HQ [2,5-GS-HQ], 2,6-bis-(glutathion-S-yl)HQ [2,6-GS-HQ], and 2,3,5-tris-(glutathion-S-yl)HQ [2,3,5-GS-HQ] were all identified in bone marrow. 2-(Cystein-S-ylglycine)HQ [2-(CysGly)HQ], 2-(cystein-S-yl)HQ [2-(Cys)HQ], and 2-(N-acetylcystein-S-yl)HQ [2-(NACys)HQ] were also found in the bone marrow of PHE/HQ and benzene treated rats and mice, indicating the presence of an active mercapturic acid pathway within bone marrow. Moreover, 2,6-GS-HQ and 2,3,5-GS-HQ were hematotoxic when administered to rats. All of the HQ-GSH conjugates retain the ability to redox cycle and generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), and to arylate target proteins. Recent in vitro and in vivo studies in our laboratory revealed lysine and arginine residues as primary targets of 1,4-BQ, GS-HQ and 2-(NACys)HQ adduction. In contrast 1,4-BQ-adduction of cysteine residues may be a transient interaction, where physiological conditions dictate adduct stability. The generation of ROS and alkylation of proteins may both contribute to benzene-mediated myelotoxicity, and the two processes may be inter-dependent. However, the precise molecular mechanism by which benzene and HQ-GSH conjugates induce hematotoxicity remains to be determined. Within 18h of administration of PHE/HQ to SD rats a significant decrease in blood lymphocyte count was observed. At this early time point, erythrocyte counts and hemoglobin concentrations remained within the normal range. Concomitant with the decrease in lymphocyte count, western blot analysis of bone marrow lysate, using HQ-GSH and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (4HNE) specific antibodies, revealed the presence of HQ-GSH- and 4HNE-derived protein adducts. Identification of these adducts is required before the functional significance of such protein modifications can be determined.