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Rendić SP, Crouch RD, Guengerich FP. Roles of selected non-P450 human oxidoreductase enzymes in protective and toxic effects of chemicals: review and compilation of reactions. Arch Toxicol 2022; 96:2145-2246. [PMID: 35648190 PMCID: PMC9159052 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-022-03304-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
This is an overview of the metabolic reactions of drugs, natural products, physiological compounds, and other (general) chemicals catalyzed by flavin monooxygenase (FMO), monoamine oxidase (MAO), NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase (NQO), and molybdenum hydroxylase enzymes (aldehyde oxidase (AOX) and xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR)), including roles as substrates, inducers, and inhibitors of the enzymes. The metabolism and bioactivation of selected examples of each group (i.e., drugs, “general chemicals,” natural products, and physiological compounds) are discussed. We identified a higher fraction of bioactivation reactions for FMO enzymes compared to other enzymes, predominately involving drugs and general chemicals. With MAO enzymes, physiological compounds predominate as substrates, and some products lead to unwanted side effects or illness. AOX and XOR enzymes are molybdenum hydroxylases that catalyze the oxidation of various heteroaromatic rings and aldehydes and the reduction of a number of different functional groups. While neither of these two enzymes contributes substantially to the metabolism of currently marketed drugs, AOX has become a frequently encountered route of metabolism among drug discovery programs in the past 10–15 years. XOR has even less of a role in the metabolism of clinical drugs and preclinical drug candidates than AOX, likely due to narrower substrate specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rachel D Crouch
- College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Lipscomb University, Nashville, TN, 37204, USA
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232-0146, USA
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Case Study 4: Application of Basic Enzyme Kinetics to Metabolism Studies-Real-Life Examples. Methods Mol Biol 2021; 2342:665-684. [PMID: 34272711 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1554-6_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
An appreciation of enzyme kinetic principles can be applied in a number of drug metabolism applications. The concept for this chapter arose from a simple discussion on selecting appropriate time points to most efficiently assess metabolite profiles in a human Phase 1a clinical study (Subheading 4). By considering enzyme kinetics, a logical approach to the issue was derived. The dialog was an important learning opportunity for the participants in the discussion, and we have endeavored to capture this experience with other questions related to determination of Km and Vmax parameters, a consideration of the value of hepatocytes vs. liver microsomes, and enzyme inhibition parameters.
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Shanu-Wilson J, Evans L, Wrigley S, Steele J, Atherton J, Boer J. Biotransformation: Impact and Application of Metabolism in Drug Discovery. ACS Med Chem Lett 2020; 11:2087-2107. [PMID: 33214818 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.0c00202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Biotransformation has a huge impact on the efficacy and safety of drugs. Ultimately the effects of metabolism can be the lynchpin in the discovery and development cycle of a new drug. This article discusses the impact and application of biotransformation of drugs by mammalian systems, microorganisms, and recombinant enzymes, covering active and reactive metabolites, the impact of the gut microbiome on metabolism, and how insights gained from biotransformation studies can influence drug design from the combined perspectives of a CRO specializing in a range of biotransformation techniques and pharma biotransformation scientists. We include a commentary on how biology-driven approaches can complement medicinal chemistry strategies in drug optimization and the in vitro and surrogate systems available to explore and exploit biotransformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Shanu-Wilson
- Hypha Discovery Ltd., 154B Brook Drive, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire OX14 4SD, U.K
| | - Liam Evans
- Hypha Discovery Ltd., 154B Brook Drive, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire OX14 4SD, U.K
| | - Stephen Wrigley
- Hypha Discovery Ltd., 154B Brook Drive, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire OX14 4SD, U.K
| | - Jonathan Steele
- Hypha Discovery Ltd., 154B Brook Drive, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxfordshire OX14 4SD, U.K
| | - James Atherton
- Incyte Corporation, 1801 Augustine Cut-off, Wilmington, Delaware 19803, United States
| | - Jason Boer
- Incyte Corporation, 1801 Augustine Cut-off, Wilmington, Delaware 19803, United States
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Dalvie D, Di L. Aldehyde oxidase and its role as a drug metabolizing enzyme. Pharmacol Ther 2019; 201:137-180. [PMID: 31128989 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2019.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Aldehyde oxidase (AO) is a cytosolic enzyme that belongs to the family of structurally related molybdoflavoproteins like xanthine oxidase (XO). The enzyme is characterized by broad substrate specificity and marked species differences. It catalyzes the oxidation of aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes and various heteroaromatic rings as well as reduction of several functional groups. The references to AO and its role in metabolism date back to the 1950s, but the importance of this enzyme in the metabolism of drugs has emerged in the past fifteen years. Several reviews on the role of AO in drug metabolism have been published in the past decade indicative of the growing interest in the enzyme and its influence in drug metabolism. Here, we present a comprehensive monograph of AO as a drug metabolizing enzyme with emphasis on marketed drugs as well as other xenobiotics, as substrates and inhibitors. Although the number of drugs that are primarily metabolized by AO are few, the impact of AO on drug development has been extensive. We also discuss the effect of AO on the systemic exposure and clearance these clinical candidates. The review provides a comprehensive analysis of drug discovery compounds involving AO with the focus on developmental candidates that were reported in the past five years with regards to pharmacokinetics and toxicity. While there is only one known report of AO-mediated clinically relevant drug-drug interaction (DDI), a detailed description of inhibitors and inducers of AO known to date has been presented here and the potential risks associated with DDI. The increasing recognition of the importance of AO has led to significant progress in predicting the site of AO-mediated metabolism using computational methods. Additionally, marked species difference in expression of AO makes it is difficult to predict human clearance with high confidence. The progress made towards developing in vivo, in vitro and in silico approaches for predicting AO metabolism and estimating human clearance of compounds that are metabolized by AO have also been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepak Dalvie
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Celgene Corporation, 10300, Campus Point Drive, San Diego, CA 92121, USA.
| | - Li Di
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism, Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development, Groton, CT 06340, UK
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Beedham
- Honorary Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Life Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK
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Battini L, Bollini M. Challenges and approaches in the discovery of human immunodeficiency virus type‐1 non‐nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Med Res Rev 2018; 39:1235-1273. [DOI: 10.1002/med.21544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Revised: 10/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Leandro Battini
- Laboratorio de Química Medicinal, Centro de Investigaciones en Bionanociencias (CIBION), CONICETCiudad de Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Mariela Bollini
- Laboratorio de Química Medicinal, Centro de Investigaciones en Bionanociencias (CIBION), CONICETCiudad de Buenos Aires Argentina
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Crouch RD, Morrison RD, Byers FW, Lindsley CW, Emmitte KA, Daniels JS. Evaluating the Disposition of a Mixed Aldehyde Oxidase/Cytochrome P450 Substrate in Rats with Attenuated P450 Activity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 44:1296-303. [PMID: 26936972 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.115.068338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Marketed drugs cleared by aldehyde oxidase (AO) are few, with no known clinically relevant pharmacokinetic drug interactions associated with AO inhibition, whereas cytochrome P450 (P450) inhibition or induction mediates a number of clinical drug interactions. Little attention has been given to the consequences of coadministering a P450 inhibitor with a compound metabolized by both AO and P450. Upon discovering that VU0409106 (1) was metabolized by AO (to M1) and P450 enzymes (to M4-M6), we sought to evaluate the in vivo disposition of 1 and its metabolites in rats with attenuated P450 activity. Male rats were orally pretreated with the pan-P450 inactivator, 1-aminobenzotriazole (ABT), before an i.p. dose of 1. Interestingly, the plasma area under the curve (AUC) of M1 was increased 15-fold in ABT-treated rats, indicating a metabolic shunt toward AO resulted from the drug interaction condition. The AUC of 1 also increased 7.8-fold. Accordingly, plasma clearance of 1 decreased from 53.5 to 15.3 ml/min per kilogram in ABT-pretreated rats receiving an i.v. dose of 1. Consistent with these data, M1 formation in hepatic S9 increased with NADPH-exclusion to eliminate P450 activity (50% over reactions containing NADPH). These studies reflect possible consequences of a drug interaction between P450 inhibitors and compounds cleared by both AO and P450 enzymes. Notably, increased exposure to an AO metabolite may hold clinical relevance for active metabolites or those mediating toxicity at elevated concentrations. The recent rise in clinical drug candidates metabolized by AO underscores the importance of these findings and the need for clinical studies to fully understand these risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel D Crouch
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (R.D.C., R.D.M., F.W.B., C.W.L., K.A.E., J.S.D.), Departments of Pharmacology (R.D.C., C.W.L, K.A.E., J.S.D.) and Chemistry (C.W.L, K.A.E.), Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Ryan D Morrison
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (R.D.C., R.D.M., F.W.B., C.W.L., K.A.E., J.S.D.), Departments of Pharmacology (R.D.C., C.W.L, K.A.E., J.S.D.) and Chemistry (C.W.L, K.A.E.), Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Frank W Byers
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (R.D.C., R.D.M., F.W.B., C.W.L., K.A.E., J.S.D.), Departments of Pharmacology (R.D.C., C.W.L, K.A.E., J.S.D.) and Chemistry (C.W.L, K.A.E.), Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Craig W Lindsley
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (R.D.C., R.D.M., F.W.B., C.W.L., K.A.E., J.S.D.), Departments of Pharmacology (R.D.C., C.W.L, K.A.E., J.S.D.) and Chemistry (C.W.L, K.A.E.), Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Kyle A Emmitte
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (R.D.C., R.D.M., F.W.B., C.W.L., K.A.E., J.S.D.), Departments of Pharmacology (R.D.C., C.W.L, K.A.E., J.S.D.) and Chemistry (C.W.L, K.A.E.), Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - J Scott Daniels
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery (R.D.C., R.D.M., F.W.B., C.W.L., K.A.E., J.S.D.), Departments of Pharmacology (R.D.C., C.W.L, K.A.E., J.S.D.) and Chemistry (C.W.L, K.A.E.), Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
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Sanoh S, Tayama Y, Sugihara K, Kitamura S, Ohta S. Significance of aldehyde oxidase during drug development: Effects on drug metabolism, pharmacokinetics, toxicity, and efficacy. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2015; 30:52-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dmpk.2014.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Revised: 10/03/2014] [Accepted: 10/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Case study 3. Application of basic enzyme kinetics to metabolism studies: real-life examples. Methods Mol Biol 2014. [PMID: 24523124 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-62703-758-7_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
Abstract
An appreciation of the principles of enzyme kinetics can be applied in a number of drug metabolism applications. The concept for this chapter arose from a simple discussion on selecting appropriate time points to most efficiently assess metabolite profiles in a human Phase 1a clinical study (Subheading 4). By considering enzyme kinetics, a logical approach to the issue was derived. The dialog was an important learning opportunity for the participants in the discussion, and we have endeavored to capture this experience with other questions related to determination of K m and V max parameters, a consideration of the value of hepatocytes versus liver microsomes and enzyme inhibition parameters.
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Takhi M, Sreenivas K, Reddy CK, Munikumar M, Praveena K, Sudheer P, Rao BN, Ramakanth G, Sivaranjani J, Mulik S, Reddy YR, Narasimha Rao K, Pallavi R, Lakshminarasimhan A, Panigrahi SK, Antony T, Abdullah I, Lee YK, Ramachandra M, Yusof R, Rahman NA, Subramanya H. Discovery of azetidine based ene-amides as potent bacterial enoyl ACP reductase (FabI) inhibitors. Eur J Med Chem 2014; 84:382-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2014.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2014] [Revised: 07/09/2014] [Accepted: 07/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Li Y, Xu J, Lai WG, Whitcher-Johnstone A, Tweedie DJ. Metabolic Switching of BILR 355 in the Presence of Ritonavir. II. Uncovering Novel Contributions by Gut Bacteria and Aldehyde Oxidase. Drug Metab Dispos 2012; 40:1130-7. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.111.044362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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