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Hammid A, Honkakoski P. Ocular Drug-Metabolizing Enzymes: Focus on Esterases. Drug Metab Rev 2024:1-23. [PMID: 38888291 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2024.2368247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Anam Hammid
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonrinne3, FI-70210 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Paavo Honkakoski
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonrinne3, FI-70210 Kuopio, Finland
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2
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Hammid A. A Standardized Protocol for Extraction and Homogenization of Ocular Tissues. Bio Protoc 2024; 14:e4988. [PMID: 38798978 PMCID: PMC11116895 DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.4988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 04/18/2024] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
The eye is a complex organ composed of multiple tissues in anterior and posterior eye segments. Malfunctions of any of these tissues can lead to ocular diseases and loss of vision. A detailed understanding of the ocular anatomy and physiology in animal models and humans contributes to the development of ocular drugs by enabling studies on drug delivery and clearance routes, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity. This protocol provides step-by-step instructions for the extraction and homogenization of ocular tissues for enzymatic and proteomics analyses. Key features • Suitable protocol for the extraction and isolation of ocular tissue from humans and laboratory animals (rabbit, pig, rat, mouse) while minimizing cross-contamination. • Hard or soft tissue homogenates can be prepared efficiently using a Bead Ruptor homogenizer. • Allows to determine the protein contents in prepared homogenates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anam Hammid
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonrinne 3, Kuopio, Finland
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Hammid A, Fallon JK, Vellonen KS, Lassila T, Reinisalo M, Urtti A, Gonzalez F, Tolonen A, Smith PC, Honkakoski P. Aldehyde oxidase 1 activity and protein expression in human, rabbit, and pig ocular tissues. Eur J Pharm Sci 2023; 191:106603. [PMID: 37827455 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2023.106603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
Aldehyde oxidase (AOX) is a cytosolic drug-metabolizing enzyme which has attracted increasing attention in drug development due to its high hepatic expression, broad substrate profile and species differences. In contrast, there is limited information on the presence and activity of AOX in extrahepatic tissues including ocular tissues. Because several ocular drugs are potential substrates for AOX, we performed a comprehensive analysis of the AOX1 expression and activity profile in seven ocular tissues from humans, rabbits, and pigs. AOX activities were determined using optimized assays for the established human AOX1 probe substrates 4-dimethylamino-cinnamaldehyde (DMAC) and phthalazine. Inhibition studies were undertaken in conjunctival and retinal homogenates using well-established human AOX1 inhibitors menadione and chlorpromazine. AOX1 protein contents were quantitated with targeted proteomics and confirmed by immunoblotting. Overall, DMAC oxidation rates varied over 10-fold between species (human ˃˃ rabbit ˃ pig) and showed 2- to 6-fold differences between tissues from the same species. Menadione seemed a more potent inhibitor of DMAC oxidation across species than chlorpromazine. Human AOX1 protein levels were highest in the conjunctiva, followed by most posterior tissues, whereas anterior tissues showed low levels. The rabbit AOX1 expression was high in the conjunctiva, retinal pigment epithelial (RPE), and choroid while lower in the anterior tissues. Quantification of pig AOX1 was not successful but immunoblotting confirmed the presence of AOX1 in all species. DMAC oxidation rates and AOX1 contents correlated quite well in humans and rabbits. This study provides, for the first time, insights into the ocular expression and activity of AOX1 among multiple species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anam Hammid
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonranta 1 C, FI-70210 Kuopio, Finland.
| | - John K Fallon
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Campus Box 7355, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7355, United States
| | - Kati-Sisko Vellonen
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonranta 1 C, FI-70210 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Toni Lassila
- Admescope Ltd, Typpitie 1, FI-90620 Oulu, Finland
| | - Mika Reinisalo
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonranta 1 C, FI-70210 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Arto Urtti
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonranta 1 C, FI-70210 Kuopio, Finland; Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5 E, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Francisco Gonzalez
- Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases (CIMUS), University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; Service of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Santiago de Compostela, and Fundacion Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria de Santiago de Compostela (FIDIS), 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Ari Tolonen
- Admescope Ltd, Typpitie 1, FI-90620 Oulu, Finland
| | - Philip C Smith
- Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Campus Box 7355, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7355, United States
| | - Paavo Honkakoski
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistonranta 1 C, FI-70210 Kuopio, Finland
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Kunikane E, Orii Y, Inoue A, Inatani M. Patient Factors Influencing Intraocular Penetration of Brimonidine-Related Eye Drops in Adults: A Post Hoc Pooled Analysis. Ophthalmol Ther 2023; 12:3083-3098. [PMID: 37676633 PMCID: PMC10640521 DOI: 10.1007/s40123-023-00794-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The factors related to the ocular penetration of drugs after the administration of eye drops in humans have not been examined in detail. Therefore, this study assessed the influence of patient factors on the intraocular penetration of eye drops. METHODS A pooled analysis was performed on the data of 42 participants from three studies to evaluate the ocular pharmacokinetics in humans after the topical application of brimonidine-related eye drops. The patients were scheduled for vitrectomy and received brimonidine-related eye drops (0.1% brimonidine tartrate ophthalmic solution, 0.1% brimonidine tartrate and 0.5% timolol fixed-combination ophthalmic solution, or 0.1% brimonidine tartrate and 1% brinzolamide fixed-combination suspension) twice daily for 1 week. We analyzed the effects of patient factors (sex, the presence or absence of lens, age, corneal thickness, corneal endothelial cell density, tear secretion, eye axial length, height, weight and body mass index [BMI]) on brimonidine, timolol and brinzolamide concentrations in the aqueous and vitreous humor after topical application. RESULTS The drug concentrations in the aqueous and vitreous humor were not significantly different, regardless of sex or the presence or absence of lens. Age correlated positively with brimonidine (r = 0.3948, p = 0.012) and brinzolamide (r = 0.6809, p = 0.030) concentrations in the aqueous humor; the correlation with timolol showed a trend towards significance (r = 0.6425, p = 0.086). Corneal thickness, corneal endothelial cell density, tear secretion, eye axial length, height and BMI did not correlate with the drug concentrations in the aqueous or vitreous humor. Timolol concentration in the vitreous humor was negatively correlated with weight (r = - 0.8333, p = 0.010). CONCLUSION The findings of this study emphasize the necessity of considering individual differences in ocular pharmacokinetics during drug therapy (formulation design of the eye drops and dose regimen).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yusuke Orii
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Fukui, Fukui, Japan
| | - Akiko Inoue
- Senju Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan
| | - Masaru Inatani
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Fukui, Fukui, Japan
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Xiang A, He H, Yu H, Li A, Luo Y, Yang J, Zhong X. Ocular Posterior Segment Distribution and Pharmacokinetics of Brimonidine After Intravitreal Administration in Guinea Pigs. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther 2023; 39:456-462. [PMID: 37311153 DOI: 10.1089/jop.2023.0020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose: Brimonidine is a highly alpha-2 adrenergic agonist, which provides a potential myopia control effect. This study aimed to examine the pharmacokinetics and concentration of brimonidine in the posterior segment tissue of eyes in guinea pigs. Methods: A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was successfully used for brimonidine pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution research in guinea pigs following intravitreal administration (20 μg/eye). Results: Brimonidine concentrations in the retina and sclera were maintained at a high level (>60 ng/g) at 96 h postdosing. Brimonidine concentration peaked in the retina (377.86 ng/g) at 2.41 h and sclera (306.18 ng/g) at 6.98 h. The area under curve (AUC0-∞) was 27,179.99 ng h/g in the retina and 39,529.03 ng h/g in the sclera. The elimination half-life (T1/2e) was 62.43 h in the retina and 67.94 h in the sclera. Conclusions: The results indicated that brimonidine was rapidly absorbed and diffused to the retina and sclera. Meanwhile, it maintained higher posterior tissue concentrations, which can effectively activate the alpha-2 adrenergic receptor. This may provide pharmacokinetic evidence for the inhibition of myopia progression by brimonidine in animal experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aiqun Xiang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hong He
- Hainan Eye Hospital and Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Haikou, China
| | - Hanyang Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Anzhen Li
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yanting Luo
- Hainan Eye Hospital and Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Haikou, China
| | - Junming Yang
- Hainan Eye Hospital and Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Haikou, China
| | - Xingwu Zhong
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Hainan Eye Hospital and Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Haikou, China
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Hammid A, Fallon JK, Lassila T, Vieiro P, Balla A, Gonzalez F, Urtti A, Smith PC, Tolonen A, Honkakoski P. Activity and Expression of Carboxylesterases and Arylacetamide Deacetylase in Human Ocular Tissues. Drug Metab Dispos 2022; 50:1483-1492. [PMID: 36195336 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.122.000993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
As a multitissue organ, the eye possesses unique anatomy and physiology, including differential expression of drug-metabolizing enzymes. Several hydrolytic enzymes that play a major role in drug metabolism and bioactivation of prodrugs have been detected in ocular tissues, but data on their quantitative expression is scarce. Also, many ophthalmic drugs are prone to hydrolysis. Metabolic characterization of individual ocular tissues is useful for the drug development process, and therefore, seven individual ocular tissues from human eyes were analyzed for the activity and expression of carboxylesterases (CESs) and arylacetamide deacetylase (AADAC). Generic and selective human esterase substrates 4-nitrophenyl acetate (most esterases), D-luciferin methyl ester (CES1), fluorescein diacetate and procaine (CES2), and phenacetin (AADAC) were applied to determine the enzymes' specific activities. Enzyme kinetics and inhibition studies were performed with isoform-selective inhibitors digitonin (CES1) and verapamil and diltiazem (CES2). Enzyme contents were determined using quantitative targeted proteomics, and CES2 expression was confirmed by western blotting. The expression and activity of human CES1 among ocular tissues varied by >10-fold, with the highest levels found in the retina and iris-ciliary body. In contrast, human CES2 expression appeared lower and more similar between tissues, whereas AADAC could not be detected. Inhibition studies showed that hydrolysis of fluorescein diacetate is also catalyzed by enzymes other than CES2. This study provides, for the first time, quantitative information on the tissue-dependent expression of human ocular esterases, which can be useful for the development of ocular drugs, prodrugs, and in pharmacokinetic modeling of the eye. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Novel and comprehensive data on the protein expression and activities of carboxylesterases from individual human eye tissues are generated. In combination with previous reports on preclinical species, this study will improve the understanding of interspecies differences in ocular drug metabolism and aid the development of ocular pharmacokinetics models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anam Hammid
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland (A.H., A.B., A.U., P.H.); Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (J.K.F., P.C.S.); Admescope Ltd, Oulu, Finland (T.L., A.T.); Biobank at the University Hospital at Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (P.V.); Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (F.G.); Service of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Santiago de Compostela and Fundacion Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela (F.G.); and Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (A.U.)
| | - John K Fallon
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland (A.H., A.B., A.U., P.H.); Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (J.K.F., P.C.S.); Admescope Ltd, Oulu, Finland (T.L., A.T.); Biobank at the University Hospital at Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (P.V.); Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (F.G.); Service of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Santiago de Compostela and Fundacion Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela (F.G.); and Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (A.U.)
| | - Toni Lassila
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland (A.H., A.B., A.U., P.H.); Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (J.K.F., P.C.S.); Admescope Ltd, Oulu, Finland (T.L., A.T.); Biobank at the University Hospital at Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (P.V.); Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (F.G.); Service of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Santiago de Compostela and Fundacion Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela (F.G.); and Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (A.U.)
| | - Paula Vieiro
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland (A.H., A.B., A.U., P.H.); Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (J.K.F., P.C.S.); Admescope Ltd, Oulu, Finland (T.L., A.T.); Biobank at the University Hospital at Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (P.V.); Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (F.G.); Service of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Santiago de Compostela and Fundacion Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela (F.G.); and Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (A.U.)
| | - Anusha Balla
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland (A.H., A.B., A.U., P.H.); Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (J.K.F., P.C.S.); Admescope Ltd, Oulu, Finland (T.L., A.T.); Biobank at the University Hospital at Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (P.V.); Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (F.G.); Service of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Santiago de Compostela and Fundacion Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela (F.G.); and Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (A.U.)
| | - Francisco Gonzalez
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland (A.H., A.B., A.U., P.H.); Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (J.K.F., P.C.S.); Admescope Ltd, Oulu, Finland (T.L., A.T.); Biobank at the University Hospital at Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (P.V.); Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (F.G.); Service of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Santiago de Compostela and Fundacion Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela (F.G.); and Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (A.U.)
| | - Arto Urtti
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland (A.H., A.B., A.U., P.H.); Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (J.K.F., P.C.S.); Admescope Ltd, Oulu, Finland (T.L., A.T.); Biobank at the University Hospital at Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (P.V.); Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (F.G.); Service of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Santiago de Compostela and Fundacion Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela (F.G.); and Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (A.U.)
| | - Philip C Smith
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland (A.H., A.B., A.U., P.H.); Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (J.K.F., P.C.S.); Admescope Ltd, Oulu, Finland (T.L., A.T.); Biobank at the University Hospital at Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (P.V.); Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (F.G.); Service of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Santiago de Compostela and Fundacion Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela (F.G.); and Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (A.U.)
| | - Ari Tolonen
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland (A.H., A.B., A.U., P.H.); Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (J.K.F., P.C.S.); Admescope Ltd, Oulu, Finland (T.L., A.T.); Biobank at the University Hospital at Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (P.V.); Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (F.G.); Service of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Santiago de Compostela and Fundacion Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela (F.G.); and Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (A.U.)
| | - Paavo Honkakoski
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland (A.H., A.B., A.U., P.H.); Division of Pharmacoengineering and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina (J.K.F., P.C.S.); Admescope Ltd, Oulu, Finland (T.L., A.T.); Biobank at the University Hospital at Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (P.V.); Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain (F.G.); Service of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Santiago de Compostela and Fundacion Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela (F.G.); and Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland (A.U.)
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Del Amo EM, Hammid A, Tausch M, Toropainen E, Sadeghi A, Valtari A, Puranen J, Reinisalo M, Ruponen M, Urtti A, Sauer A, Honkakoski P. Ocular metabolism and distribution of drugs in the rabbit eye: Quantitative assessment after intracameral and intravitreal administrations. Int J Pharm 2021; 613:121361. [PMID: 34896561 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.121361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/04/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Quantitation of ocular drug metabolism is important, but only sparse data is currently available. Herein, the pharmacokinetics of four drugs, substrates of metabolizing enzymes, was investigated in albino rabbit eyes after intracameral and intravitreal administrations. Acetaminophen, brimonidine, cefuroxime axetil, and sunitinib and their corresponding metabolites were quantitated in the cornea, iris-ciliary body, aqueous humor, lens, vitreous humor, and neural retina with LC-MS/MS analytics. Non-compartmental analysis was employed to estimate the pharmacokinetic parameters of the parent drugs and metabolites. The area under the curve (AUC) values of metabolites were 12-70 times lower than the AUC values of the parent drugs in the tissues with the highest enzymatic activity. The ester prodrug cefuroxime axetil was an exception because it was efficiently and quantitatively converted to cefuroxime in the ocular tissues. In contrast to the liver, sulfotransferases, aldehyde oxidase, and cytochrome P450 3A activities were low in the eye and they had negligible impact on ocular drug clearance. With the exception of esterase substrates, metabolism seems to be a minor player in ocular pharmacokinetics. However, metabolites might contribute to ocular toxicity, and drug metabolism in various eye tissues should be investigated and understood thoroughly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva M Del Amo
- University of Eastern Finland, School of Pharmacy, Biopharmaceutics, Yliopistonranta 1, 70210 Kuopio, Finland.
| | - Anam Hammid
- University of Eastern Finland, School of Pharmacy, Biopharmaceutics, Yliopistonranta 1, 70210 Kuopio, Finland
| | | | - Elisa Toropainen
- University of Eastern Finland, School of Pharmacy, Biopharmaceutics, Yliopistonranta 1, 70210 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Amir Sadeghi
- University of Eastern Finland, School of Pharmacy, Biopharmaceutics, Yliopistonranta 1, 70210 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Annika Valtari
- University of Eastern Finland, School of Pharmacy, Biopharmaceutics, Yliopistonranta 1, 70210 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Jooseppi Puranen
- University of Eastern Finland, School of Pharmacy, Biopharmaceutics, Yliopistonranta 1, 70210 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Mika Reinisalo
- University of Eastern Finland, School of Pharmacy, Biopharmaceutics, Yliopistonranta 1, 70210 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Marika Ruponen
- University of Eastern Finland, School of Pharmacy, Biopharmaceutics, Yliopistonranta 1, 70210 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Arto Urtti
- University of Eastern Finland, School of Pharmacy, Biopharmaceutics, Yliopistonranta 1, 70210 Kuopio, Finland; University of Helsinki, Faculty of Pharmacy, Drug Research Program, Yliopistonkatu 3, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; Saint-Petersburg State University, Institute of Chemistry, Universitetskiy Prospekt, 26, Petergoff 198504, Russian Federation
| | - Achim Sauer
- Department of Drug Discovery Sciences, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, 88397 Biberach, Germany
| | - Paavo Honkakoski
- University of Eastern Finland, School of Pharmacy, Biopharmaceutics, Yliopistonranta 1, 70210 Kuopio, Finland
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8
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Balhara A, Basit A, Argikar UA, Dumouchel JL, Singh S, Prasad B. Comparative Proteomics Analysis of the Postmitochondrial Supernatant Fraction of Human Lens-Free Whole Eye and Liver. Drug Metab Dispos 2021; 49:592-600. [PMID: 33952609 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.120.000297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The increasing incidence of ocular diseases has accelerated research into therapeutic interventions needed for the eye. Ocular enzymes play important roles in the metabolism of drugs and endobiotics. Various ocular drugs are designed as prodrugs that are activated by ocular enzymes. Moreover, ocular enzymes have been implicated in the bioactivation of drugs to their toxic metabolites. The key purpose of this study was to compare global proteomes of the pooled samples of the eye (n = 11) and the liver (n = 50) with a detailed analysis of the abundance of enzymes involved in the metabolism of xenobiotics and endobiotics. We used the postmitochondrial supernatant fraction (S9 fraction) of the lens-free whole eye homogenate as a model to allow accurate comparison with the liver S9 fraction. A total of 269 proteins (including 23 metabolic enzymes) were detected exclusively in the pooled eye S9 against 648 proteins in the liver S9 (including 174 metabolic enzymes), whereas 424 proteins (including 94 metabolic enzymes) were detected in both the organs. The major hepatic cytochrome P450 and UDP-glucuronosyltransferases enzymes were not detected, but aldehyde dehydrogenases and glutathione transferases were the predominant proteins in the eye. The comparative qualitative and quantitative proteomics data in the eye versus liver is expected to help in explaining differential metabolic and physiologic activities in the eye. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Information on the enzymes involved in xenobiotic and endobiotic metabolism in the human eye in relation to the liver is scarcely available. The study employed global proteomic analysis to compare the proteomes of the lens-free whole eye and the liver with a detailed analysis of the enzymes involved in xenobiotic and endobiotic metabolism. These data will help in better understanding of the ocular metabolism and activation of drugs and endobiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankit Balhara
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), S.A.S. Nagar, Punjab, India (An.B., S.S.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington (Ab.B., B.P.); Biotransformation Group, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts (U.A.A.); and Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island (J.L.D.)
| | - Abdul Basit
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), S.A.S. Nagar, Punjab, India (An.B., S.S.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington (Ab.B., B.P.); Biotransformation Group, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts (U.A.A.); and Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island (J.L.D.)
| | - Upendra A Argikar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), S.A.S. Nagar, Punjab, India (An.B., S.S.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington (Ab.B., B.P.); Biotransformation Group, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts (U.A.A.); and Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island (J.L.D.)
| | - Jennifer L Dumouchel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), S.A.S. Nagar, Punjab, India (An.B., S.S.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington (Ab.B., B.P.); Biotransformation Group, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts (U.A.A.); and Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island (J.L.D.)
| | - Saranjit Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), S.A.S. Nagar, Punjab, India (An.B., S.S.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington (Ab.B., B.P.); Biotransformation Group, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts (U.A.A.); and Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island (J.L.D.)
| | - Bhagwat Prasad
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), S.A.S. Nagar, Punjab, India (An.B., S.S.); Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington (Ab.B., B.P.); Biotransformation Group, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, Massachusetts (U.A.A.); and Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island (J.L.D.)
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9
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Williamson B, Pilla Reddy V. Blood retinal barrier and ocular pharmacokinetics: Considerations for the development of oncology drugs. Biopharm Drug Dispos 2021; 42:128-136. [PMID: 33759216 DOI: 10.1002/bdd.2276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are an example of targeted drug therapy to treat cancer while minimizing damage to healthy tissue. In contrast to traditional oncology drugs, the toxicity profile of targeted therapies is less well understood and can include severe ocular adverse events, which are among the most common toxicity reported by these therapeutics. Inhibition of Mer receptor tyrosine kinase (MERTK) promotes innate tumor immunity by decreasing M2-macrophage polarization and efferocytosis. This mechanism offers the opportunity for targeted immunotherapy to treat cancer; however, the ocular expression of MERTK increases the difficulty for developing a targeted drug due to toxicity concerns. In this article we review the pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters and in vitro absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) assays available to evaluate ocular disposition and assess the relationship between clinical PK and reported ocular events for TKIs to allow backtranslation to preclinical models. Understanding the ocular disposition in the context of PK and safety remains an evolving area and is likely to be a key aspect of developing safe and efficacious oncology drugs, devoid of ocular toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth Williamson
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Early Oncology, Oncology R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
| | - Venkatesh Pilla Reddy
- Modelling and Simulation, Early Oncology, Oncology R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK.,Clinical Pharmacology and Quantitative Pharmacology, Biopharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, UK
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10
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García Del Valle I, Alvarez-Lorenzo C. Atropine in topical formulations for the management of anterior and posterior segment ocular diseases. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2021; 18:1245-1260. [PMID: 33787441 DOI: 10.1080/17425247.2021.1909568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Atropine is an old-known drug which is gaining increasing attention due to the myriad of therapeutic effects it may trigger on eye structures. Nevertheless, novel applications may require more adequate topical formulations. AREAS COVERED This review aims to gather the existing knowledge about atropine and its clinical applications in the ophthalmological field when administered topically. Atropine ocular pharmacokinetics is paid a special attention, including recent evidences of the capability of the drug to access to the posterior segment. Ocular bioavailability and systemic bioavailability are counterbalanced. Finally, limitations of traditional dosage forms and potential advantages of under investigation delivery systems are analyzed. EXPERT OPINION Mydriasis and cyclopegia have been widely exploited for eye examination, management of anterior segment diseases, and more recently as antidotes of chemical weapons. Improved knowledge on drug receptors and related pathways explains atropine repositioning as an outstanding tool to prevent myopia. The ease with which atropine penetrates ocular tissues is a double edged sword, that is, while it ensures therapeutic levels in the posterior segment, the unspecific distribution causes a wide variety of untoward effects. The design of formulations that can selectively deliver atropine to the target tissue for each specific application is an urgent unmet need.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines García Del Valle
- Departamento De Farmacología, Farmacia Y Tecnología Farmacéutica, I+D FarmaGroup, Facultad De Farmacia and Health Research Institute of Santiago De Compostela (IDIS), Universidade De Santiago De Compostela, Santiago De Compostela, Spain
| | - Carmen Alvarez-Lorenzo
- Departamento De Farmacología, Farmacia Y Tecnología Farmacéutica, I+D FarmaGroup, Facultad De Farmacia and Health Research Institute of Santiago De Compostela (IDIS), Universidade De Santiago De Compostela, Santiago De Compostela, Spain
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11
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In vitro reconstructed 3D corneal tissue models for ocular toxicology and ophthalmic drug development. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 2021; 57:207-237. [PMID: 33544359 DOI: 10.1007/s11626-020-00533-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Testing of all manufactured products and their ingredients for eye irritation is a regulatory requirement. In the last two decades, the development of alternatives to the in vivo Draize eye irritation test method has substantially advanced due to the improvements in primary cell isolation, cell culture techniques, and media, which have led to improved in vitro corneal tissue models and test methods. Most in vitro models for ocular toxicology attempt to reproduce the corneal epithelial tissue which consists of 4-5 layers of non-keratinized corneal epithelial cells that form tight junctions, thereby limiting the penetration of chemicals, xenobiotics, and pharmaceuticals. Also, significant efforts have been directed toward the development of more complex three-dimensional (3D) equivalents to study wound healing, drug permeation, and bioavailability. This review focuses on in vitro reconstructed 3D corneal tissue models and their utilization in ocular toxicology as well as their application to pharmacology and ophthalmic research. Current human 3D corneal epithelial cell culture models have replaced in vivo animal eye irritation tests for many applications, and substantial validation efforts are in progress to verify and approve alternative eye irritation tests for widespread use. The validation of drug absorption models and further development of models and test methods for many ophthalmic and ocular disease applications is required.
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12
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Dumouchel JL, Argikar UA, Adams CM, Prasanna G, Ehara T, Kim S, Breen C, Mogi M. Understanding metabolism related differences in ocular efficacy of MGV354. Xenobiotica 2020; 51:5-14. [PMID: 32662714 DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2020.1794658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
MGV354 was being developed as a novel ocular therapy for lowering of intraocular pressure, a key modifiable risk factor for glaucoma. MGV354 is an activator of soluble guanylate cyclase, an enzyme known to be involved in the regulation of IOP. MGV354 has been shown to robustly lower IOP over 24 h after a single topical ocular drop in rabbit and monkey pharmacology models. However, MGV354 failed to produce similar results in patients with ocular hypertension or open-angle glaucoma. With an objective of explaining the lack of efficacy in the clinic, we attempted to study whether human metabolism was significantly different from animal metabolism. The present study documents the investigation of metabolism of MGV354 in an effort to understand potential differences in biotransformation pathways of MGV354 in rabbits, monkeys, and humans. Overall twenty-six metabolites, formed via oxidative and conjugative pathways, were identified in vitro and in vivo. In vitro hepatic metabolism was qualitatively similar across species, with minor but distinct differences. There were no observable interspecies differences in the hepatic and ocular metabolism of MGV354. Although ocular metabolism was not as extensive as hepatic, the results do not explain the lack of efficacy of MGV354 in clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L Dumouchel
- Pharmacokinetic Sciences, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Upendra A Argikar
- Pharmacokinetic Sciences, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Christopher M Adams
- Global Discovery Chemistry, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Ganesh Prasanna
- Ophthalmology, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Takeru Ehara
- Global Discovery Chemistry, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Sean Kim
- Pharmacokinetic Sciences, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Chris Breen
- Pharmacokinetic Sciences, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Muneto Mogi
- Global Discovery Chemistry, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
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13
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Jairam RK, Mallurwar SR, Gabani BB, Zakkula A, Kiran V, Dittakavi S, Sulochana SP, Mohd Z, Srinivas NR, Mullangi R. Uptake and pharmacokinetics of cefuroxime in rabbits after intravitreal, intracameral, and topical dosing: relevance to human ocular injection of cefuroxime. Xenobiotica 2019; 50:339-345. [PMID: 31144563 DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2019.1624872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Cefuroxime is one of the widely used antibiotics. The objective of this study was to determine pharmacokinetics and disposition in various ocular tissues following topical (TOP), intracameral (IC) and intravitreal (IVT) administration of cefuroxime to rabbits.Following TOP, IC and IVT dosing plasma and various ocular tissues (aqueous humor (AH), vitreous humor (VH), conjunctiva, trabecular mesh (TM), lens and retina-choroid (RC)) were collected and analyzed to understand the disposition of cefuroxime. Postintravenous administration plasma samples were collected to determine the systemic pharmacokinetics.Post-TOP dosing cefuroxime concentrations were observed only in conjunctiva up to 48 h. IC administration showed cefuroxime concentrations in AH up to 8 h; in conjunctiva, TM and plasma, the concentration lasted up to 4 h and in RC and VH till 1 h. IVT administration of cefuroxime showed concentrations in all ocular tissues (up to 8 h) and lasted up to 48 h except in conjunctiva and RC.There was evidence that the mechanism(s) of cefuroxime entry into the eye by via IVT, IC and TOP routes is clearly different. The present ocular tissue data may aid clinicians for considering appropriate choice in the treatment of post-operative ocular complications due to bacterial infections including endophthalmitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravi Kumar Jairam
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Industrial Suburb, Yeshwanthpur, Bangalore, India
| | - Sadanand R Mallurwar
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Industrial Suburb, Yeshwanthpur, Bangalore, India
| | - Bhavesh B Gabani
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Industrial Suburb, Yeshwanthpur, Bangalore, India
| | - Ashok Zakkula
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Industrial Suburb, Yeshwanthpur, Bangalore, India
| | - Vinay Kiran
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Industrial Suburb, Yeshwanthpur, Bangalore, India
| | - Sreekanth Dittakavi
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Industrial Suburb, Yeshwanthpur, Bangalore, India
| | - Suresh P Sulochana
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Industrial Suburb, Yeshwanthpur, Bangalore, India
| | - Zainuddin Mohd
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Industrial Suburb, Yeshwanthpur, Bangalore, India
| | | | - Ramesh Mullangi
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Industrial Suburb, Yeshwanthpur, Bangalore, India
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14
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Sawant-Basak A, Obach RS. Emerging Models of Drug Metabolism, Transporters, and Toxicity. Drug Metab Dispos 2019; 46:1556-1561. [PMID: 30333205 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.118.084293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2018] [Accepted: 09/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This commentary summarizes expert mini-reviews and original research articles that have been assembled in a special issue on novel models of drug metabolism and disposition. The special issue consists of research articles or reviews on novel static or micro-flow based models of the intestine, liver, eye, and kidney. This issue reviews static intestinal systems like mucosal scrapings and cryopreserved intestinal enterocytes, as well as novel bioengineered or chemically engineered intestinal models derived from primary human tissue, iPSCs, enteroids, and crypts. Experts have reviewed hepatic systems like cryopermeabilized Metmax hepatocytes and longer term, hepatocyte coculture system from HµREL, yielding in vivo-like primary and secondary drug metabolite profiles. Additional liver models, including micropattern hepatocyte coculture, 3D liver spheroids, and microflow systems, applicable to the study of drug disposition and toxicology have also been reviewed. In this commentary, we have outlined expert opinions and current efforts on hepatic- and nephrotoxicity models. Ocular disposition models including corneal permeability models have been included within this special issue. This commentary provides a summary of in vivo mini-reviews of the issue, which have discussed the applications and drawbacks of pig and humanized mice models of P450, UGT, and rat organic anionic transporting polypeptide 1a4. While not extensively reviewed, novel positron emissions tomography imaging-based approaches to study the distribution of xenobiotics have been highlighted. This commentary also outlines in vitro and in vivo models of drug metabolism derived from breakthrough genetic, chromosomal, and tissue engineering techniques. The commentary concludes by providing a futuristic view of the novel models discussed in this issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarti Sawant-Basak
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Clinical Pharmacology, Cambridge, Massachusetts (A.S.-B.) and Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics, and Metabolism, Groton, Connecticut (R.S.O.)
| | - R Scott Obach
- Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Clinical Pharmacology, Cambridge, Massachusetts (A.S.-B.) and Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics, and Metabolism, Groton, Connecticut (R.S.O.)
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