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Nagao I, Nakazawa M, Goyama T, Court MH, Ambrosini YM. Assessment of cytochrome P450 induction in canine intestinal organoid models. Xenobiotica 2024; 54:217-225. [PMID: 38441495 PMCID: PMC11178462 DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2024.2326973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2024] [Indexed: 03/11/2024]
Abstract
Understanding cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes in the canine intestine is vital for predicting drug metabolism and developing safer oral medications. This study evaluates canine colonoids as a model to assess the expression and induction of essential intestinal CYP enzymes.Canine colonoids were cultured in expansion medium (EM) with Wnt-3A and in differentiation medium (DM) without Wnt-3A. We assessed the mRNA expression of CYP2B11, CYP2C21, CYP3A12, and CYP3A98 using qPCR and examined the effects of rifampicin and phenobarbital as inducers.Our findings show that DM significantly increased the mRNA expression of CYP3A98 and CYP2B11, but not CYP3A12, compared to EM. CYP2C21, not typically expressed in the intestine, remained unexpressed in colonoids. Rifampicin induced CYP3A98, aligning with pregnane x receptor (PXR) regulation, while phenobarbital did not, suggesting no constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) involvement. CYP2B11 did not respond to either inducer, suggesting alternative regulatory pathways in canine colonoids.This study is a pioneering effort to establish conditions for studying P450 expression in canine colonoids, confirming significant CYP3A98 expression in the canine intestine. It demonstrated colonoids can induce CYP activity post drug treatments. Further research is needed to enhance species-specific drug metabolism understanding and validate this model for broader applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Itsuma Nagao
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United Sates of America
- Department of Veterinary Internal Medicine, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Meg Nakazawa
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United Sates of America
| | - Takashi Goyama
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United Sates of America
| | - Michael H. Court
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United Sates of America
| | - Yoko M. Ambrosini
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United Sates of America
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Chen G, Zhang W, Li D, Song J, Dong M. Testosterone synthesis was inhibited in the testis metabolomics of a depression mouse model. J Affect Disord 2024; 350:627-635. [PMID: 38244803 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2024.01.143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 01/14/2024] [Indexed: 01/22/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Depression is a common emotional disorder. Previous studies have suggested that depression is associated with the central nervous system. Recent studies have suggested that reduced testosterone level is the core inducement of depression. Testis is the vital organ for the synthesis of testosterone. How does testis mediate depression is still unknown. OBJECTIVES We adopted a classical depression model of mouse caused through chronic mild stress (CMS). The metabolomics liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry was adopted to analyse the influence of CMS on testis metabolism. Then we confirmed the possible abnormal metabolism of the testis in depression mice by pathway analysis and molecular biological technique. RESULTS Compared with control mice, 16 differential metabolites were found in CMS mice by multivariate statistical analysis. In comparison with control mice, CMS mice showed higher levels for campesterol, ribitol, citric acid, platelet activating factor, guanosine, cytosine and xanthine and lower levels for docosahexaenoic acid, hippuric acid, creatine, testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone, progesterone, l-carnitine, acetyl carnitine and propionyl carnitine. The pathway analysis indicated that these differential metabolites are associated with steroid hormone synthesis, purine metabolism and phenylalanine metabolism. In addition, we also first discovered that testicular morphology in depression mice was damaged and steroid hormone synthetases (including steroidogenic acute regulatory protein and P450 cholesterol side chain cleavage) were inhibited. CONCLUSION These findings may be helpful to parse molecular mechanisms of pathophysiology of depression. It also pointed out the direction to search for potential therapy schedules for male depression and provide novel insights into exploring the pathogenesis of male depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guanghui Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, China
| | - Wenbin Zhang
- Department of Oncology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, China
| | - Dongyan Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Jian Song
- Department of Pharmacy, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, China
| | - Meixue Dong
- Department of Neurology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430060, China.
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Uno Y, Yamato O, Yamazaki H. Transcript abundance of hepatic drug-metabolizing enzymes in two dog breeds compared with 14 species including humans. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2024; 55:101002. [PMID: 38452615 DOI: 10.1016/j.dmpk.2024.101002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
Drug-metabolizing enzymes are important in drug development and therapy, but have not been fully identified and characterized in many species, lines, and breeds. Liver transcriptomic data were analyzed for phase I cytochromes P450, flavin-containing monooxygenases, and carboxylesterases and phase II UDP-glucuronosyltransferases, sulfotransferases, and glutathione S-transferases. Comparisons with a variety of species (humans, rhesus macaques, African green monkeys, baboons, common marmosets, cattle, sheep, pigs, cats, dogs, rabbits, tree shrews, rats, mice, and chickens) revealed both general similarities and differences in the transcript abundances of drug-metabolizing enzymes. Similarly, Beagle and Shiba dogs were examined by next-generation sequencing (RNA-seq). Consequently, no substantial differences in transcript abundance were noted in different breeds of pigs and dogs and in different lines of mice and rats. Therefore, the expression profiles of hepatic drug-metabolizing enzyme transcripts appear to be similar in Shiba and Beagle dogs and pig breeds and the rat and mouse lines analyzed, although some differences were found in other species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Uno
- Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima-city, Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan.
| | - Osamu Yamato
- Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima-city, Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Yamazaki
- Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo, 194-8543, Japan.
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Uno Y, Uehara S, Ushirozako G, Murayama N, Suemizu H, Yamazaki H. Cytochrome P450 1A2 and 2C enzymes autoinduced by omeprazole in dog hepatocytes and human HepaRG and HepaSH cells are involved in omeprazole 5-hydroxylation and sulfoxidation. Xenobiotica 2023; 53:465-473. [PMID: 37800661 DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2023.2266840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/01/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023]
Abstract
The induction assay for the cytochromes P450 (P450s) is an important tool in drug discovery and development. The inductions of dog P450 1A2 and 3A12 by omeprazole and rifampicin were functionally characterised in dog hepatocytes and were compared with induction in human HepaRG and HepaSH cells.P450 1A2-dependent ethoxyresorufin O-deethylation was induced by R,S-omeprazole and P450 3 A-dependent midazolam 1'-hydroxylation was induced by rifampicin, and both reactions were significantly enhanced in cultured dog hepatocytes and human HepaRG and HepaSH cells.Recombinant dog P450 1A2 exhibited activities towards R- and S-omeprazole 5-hydroxylation with low Km values of 23-28 µM, whereas dog P450 2C21 and 3A12 efficiently mediated S-omeprazole 5-hydroxylation and sulfoxidation, respectively, with high Vmax values of 12-17 min-1.Although omeprazole 5-hydroxylation by human P450 2C19 (and sulfoxidation by P450 3A4) in human HepaSH cells were slightly (∼2-fold) induced by R,S-omeprazole, dog P450 1A2 was autoinduced by omeprazole in dog hepatocytes and showed enhanced R-omeprazole 5-hydroxylation activity (∼5-fold).These results indicate that omeprazole can be an autoinducer of P450 1A2 in hepatocytes, and this enzyme was found to be involved in omeprazole 5-hydroxylation and sulfoxidation in dog hepatocytes and human HepaRG and HepaSH cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Uno
- Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Shotaro Uehara
- Department of Applied Research for Laboratory Animals, Central Institute for Experimental Animals, Kawasaki, Japan
| | - Genki Ushirozako
- Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Norie Murayama
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Suemizu
- Department of Applied Research for Laboratory Animals, Central Institute for Experimental Animals, Kawasaki, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Yamazaki
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Japan
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Khojasteh SC, Argikar UA, Cheruzel L, Cho S, Crouch RD, Dhaware D, Heck CJS, Johnson KM, Kalgutkar AS, King L, Liu J, Ma B, Maw H, Miller GP, Seneviratne HK, Takahashi RH, Wang S, Wei C, Jackson KD. Biotransformation research advances - 2022 year in review. Drug Metab Rev 2023; 55:301-342. [PMID: 37737116 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2023.2262161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
This annual review is the eighth of its kind since 2016 (Baillie et al. 2016, Khojasteh et al. 2017, Khojasteh et al. 2018, Khojasteh et al. 2019, Khojasteh et al. 2020, Khojasteh et al. 2021, Khojasteh et al. 2022). Our objective is to explore and share articles which we deem influential and significant in the field of biotransformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Cyrus Khojasteh
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Upendra A Argikar
- Non-clinical Development, Bill and Melinda Gates Medical Research Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Lionel Cheruzel
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Sungjoon Cho
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Rachel D Crouch
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Lipscomb University College of Pharmacy, Nashville, TN, USA
| | | | - Carley J S Heck
- Medicine Design, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development and Medical, Groton, CT, USA
| | - Kevin M Johnson
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Inotiv, MD Heights, MO, USA
| | - Amit S Kalgutkar
- Medicine Design, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development and Medical, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Lloyd King
- Quantitative Drug Discovery, UCB Biopharma UK, Slough UK
| | - Joyce Liu
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Bin Ma
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Hlaing Maw
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc, Ridgefield, CT, USA
| | - Grover P Miller
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of AR for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | | | - Ryan H Takahashi
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Shuai Wang
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Genentech, Inc, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Cong Wei
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Biogen Inc, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Klarissa D Jackson
- Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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Uno Y, Noda Y, Morikuni S, Murayama N, Yamazaki H. Liver microsomal cytochrome P450 3A-dependent drug oxidation activities in individual dogs. Xenobiotica 2023:1-9. [PMID: 37144920 DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2023.2211673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Drug oxidations are mediated mainly by cytochromes P450 (P450s or CYPs). CYP3As are an important P450 subfamily and include liver-specific CYP3A12 and intestine-specific CYP3A98 in dogs. Individual differences in drug oxidation activities were investigated, including correlations with immunoreactive CYP3A protein intensities and CYP3A mRNA expression levels in liver microsomes.Pooled and individual dog liver microsomes showed activities toward nifedipine, midazolam, alprazolam, and estradiol, but the levels of catalytic activities varied approximately twofold among the individual dogs. One dog harbored a CYP1A2 variant causing protein deletion, but showed higher activities than the other dogs toward nifedipine oxidation, midazolam 1'-hydroxylation, alprazolam 4-hydroxylation, estradiol 16α-hydroxylation activities, and caffeine C8-hydroxylation; the latter is used as a reference reaction for CYP1A.In individual dog liver microsomes, the intensities of the immunochemical bands with anti-human CYP3A4 and anti-rat CYP3A2 antibodies along with CYP3A12 and CYP3A26 mRNA expression levels showed good correlations (p < 0.05) with nifedipine oxidation, midazolam 1'- and 4-hydroxylation, alprazolam 1'- and 4-hydroxylation, and estradiol 16α-hydroxylation activities.These results suggest that the oxidation activities of dog liver microsomes toward nifedipine and other typical CYP3A-catalyzed drugs exhibit approximately twofold individual differences and were predominantly mediated by liver-specific CYP3A12 in the dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Uno
- Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima-city, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan
| | - Yutaro Noda
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Saho Morikuni
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Norie Murayama
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Yamazaki
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
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Uno Y, Jikuya S, Noda Y, Oguchi A, Murayama N, Kawaguchi H, Tsukiyama-Kohara K, Yamazaki H. Newly identified cytochrome P450 3A genes of tree shrews and pigs are expressed and encode functional enzymes. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2023; 267:109579. [PMID: 36822299 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2023.109579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 02/12/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
Novel cytochrome P450 3A5 (CYP3A5) cDNA in tree shrews (which are non-rodent primate-like species) and pig CYP3A227 cDNA were identified, along with known pig CYP3A22, CYP3A29, and CYP3A46 cDNAs. All five cDNAs contained open reading frames encoding a polypeptide of 503 amino acids that shared high sequence identity (72-78 %) with human CYP3A4 and were more closely related to human CYP3As than rat CYP3As by phylogenetic analysis. CYP3A5 was the only CYP3A in the tree shrew genome, but pig CYP3A genes formed a CYP3A gene cluster in the genomic region corresponding to that of human CYP3A genes. Tree shrew CYP3A5 mRNA was predominantly expressed in liver and small intestine, among the tissues analyzed, whereas pig CYP3A227 mRNA was most abundantly expressed in jejunum, followed by liver. Metabolic assays established that tree shrew CYP3A5 and pig CYP3A proteins heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli metabolized typical human CYP3A4 substrates nifedipine and midazolam. These results suggest that novel tree shrew CYP3A5 and pig CYP3A227 were functional enzymes able to metabolize human CYP3A4 substrates in liver and small intestine, similar to human CYP3A4, although pig CYP3A227 mRNA was minimally expressed in all tissues analyzed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Uno
- Department of Basic Veterinary Science, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima-city, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan.
| | - Shiori Jikuya
- Department of Basic Veterinary Science, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima-city, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan
| | - Yutaro Noda
- Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Asuka Oguchi
- Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Norie Murayama
- Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Kawaguchi
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Kitasato University, Towada, Aomori 034-8628, Japan
| | - Kyoko Tsukiyama-Kohara
- Department of Basic Veterinary Science, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima-city, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan; Transboundary Animal Diseases Center, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan; Laboratory of Animal Hygiene, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Yamazaki
- Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan.
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Yamazaki H, Shimizu M. Species Specificity and Selection of Models for Drug Oxidations Mediated by Polymorphic Human Enzymes. Drug Metab Dispos 2023; 51:123-129. [PMID: 35772770 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.121.000742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 05/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Many drug oxygenations are mainly mediated by polymorphic cytochromes P450 (P450s) and also by flavin-containing monooxygenases (FMOs). More than 50 years of research on P450/FMO-mediated drug oxygenations have clarified their catalytic roles. The natural product coumarin causes hepatotoxicity in rats via the reactive coumarin 3,4-epoxide, a reaction catalyzed by P450 1A2; however, coumarin undergoes rapid 7-hydroxylation by polymorphic P450 2A6 in humans. The primary oxidation product of the teratogen thalidomide in rats is deactivated 5'-hydroxythalidomide plus sulfate and glucuronide conjugates; however, similar 5'-hydroxythalidomide and 5-hydroxythalidomide are formed in rabbits in vivo. Thalidomide causes human P450 3A enzyme induction in liver (and placenta) and is also activated in vitro and in vivo by P450 3A through the primary human metabolite 5-hydroxythalidomide (leading to conjugation with glutathione/nonspecific proteins). Species differences exist in terms of drug metabolism in rodents and humans, and such differences can be very important when determining the contributions of individual enzymes. The approaches used for investigating the roles of human P450 and FMO enzymes in understanding drug oxidations and clinical therapy have not yet reached maturity and still require further development. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Drug oxidations in animals and humans mediated by P450s and FMOs are important for understanding the pharmacological properties of drugs, such as the species-dependent teratogenicity of the reactive metabolites of thalidomide and the metabolism of food-derived odorous trimethylamine to non-odorous (but proatherogenic) trimethylamine N-oxide. Recognized differences exist in terms of drug metabolism between rodents, non-human primates, and humans, and such differences are important when determining individual liver enzyme contributions with substrates in in vitro and in vivo systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Yamazaki
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Makiko Shimizu
- Laboratory of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Machida, Tokyo, Japan
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Specific Gene Duplication and Loss of Cytochrome P450 in Families 1-3 in Carnivora (Mammalia, Laurasiatheria). Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12202821. [PMID: 36290207 PMCID: PMC9597770 DOI: 10.3390/ani12202821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2022] [Revised: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary In this study we investigated the specific duplication and loss events of cytochrome P450 (CYP) genes in families 1-3 in Carnivora. These genes have been recognized as essential detoxification enzymes, and, using genomic data, we demonstrated a synteny analysis of the CYP coding cluster and a phylogenetic analysis of these genes. We discovered the CYP2Cs and CYP3As expansion in omnivorous species such as the badger, the brown bear, the black bear, and the dog. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis revealed the evolution of CYP2Cs and 3As in Carnivora. These findings are essential for the appropriate estimation of pharmacokinetics or toxicokinetic in wild carnivorans. Abstract Cytochrome P450s are among the most important xenobiotic metabolism enzymes that catalyze the metabolism of a wide range of chemicals. Through duplication and loss events, CYPs have created their original feature of detoxification in each mammal. We performed a comprehensive genomic analysis to reveal the evolutionary features of the main xenobiotic metabolizing family: the CYP1-3 families in Carnivora. We found specific gene expansion of CYP2Cs and CYP3As in omnivorous animals, such as the brown bear, the black bear, the dog, and the badger, revealing their daily phytochemical intake as providing the causes of their evolutionary adaptation. Further phylogenetic analysis of CYP2Cs revealed Carnivora CYP2Cs were divided into CYP2C21, 2C41, and 2C23 orthologs. Additionally, CYP3As phylogeny also revealed the 3As’ evolution was completely different to that of the Caniformia and Feliformia taxa. These studies provide us with fundamental genetic and evolutionary information on CYPs in Carnivora, which is essential for the appropriate interpretation and extrapolation of pharmacokinetics or toxicokinetic data from experimental mammals to wild Carnivora.
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