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Gallo A, Le Goff W, Santos RD, Fichtner I, Carugo S, Corsini A, Sirtori C, Ruscica M. Hypercholesterolemia and inflammation-Cooperative cardiovascular risk factors. Eur J Clin Invest 2024:e14326. [PMID: 39370572 DOI: 10.1111/eci.14326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2024] [Accepted: 09/02/2024] [Indexed: 10/08/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Maintaining low concentrations of plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDLc) over time decreases the number of LDL particles trapped within the artery wall, slows the progression of atherosclerosis and delays the age at which mature atherosclerotic plaques develop. This substantially reduces the lifetime risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) events. In this context, plaque development and vulnerability result not only from lipid accumulation but also from inflammation. RESULTS Changes in the composition of immune cells, including macrophages, dendritic cells, T cells, B cells, mast cells and neutrophils, along with altered cytokine and chemokine release, disrupt the equilibrium between inflammation and anti-inflammatory mechanisms at plaque sites. Considering that it is not a competition between LDLc and inflammation, but instead that they are partners in crime, the present narrative review aims to give an overview of the main inflammatory molecular pathways linked to raised LDLc concentrations and to describe the impact of lipid-lowering approaches on the inflammatory and lipid burden. Although remarkable changes in LDLc are driven by the most recent lipid lowering combinations, the relative reduction in plasma C-reactive protein appears to be independent of the magnitude of LDLc lowering. CONCLUSION Identifying clinical biomarkers of inflammation (e.g. interleukin-6) and possible targets for therapy holds promise for monitoring and reducing the ASCVD burden in suitable patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Gallo
- Lipidology and Cardiovascular Prevention Unit, Department of Nutrition, APHP, Hôpital Pitié-Salpètriêre, Sorbonne Université, INSERM UMR1166, Paris, France
| | - Wilfried Le Goff
- Lipidology and Cardiovascular Prevention Unit, Department of Nutrition, APHP, Hôpital Pitié-Salpètriêre, Sorbonne Université, INSERM UMR1166, Paris, France
| | - Raul D Santos
- Academic Research Organization Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein and Lipid Clinic Heart Institute (InCor), University of Sao Paulo Medical School Hospital, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Isabella Fichtner
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences "Rodolfo Paoletti", Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Stefano Carugo
- Department of Cardio-Thoracic-Vascular Diseases, Foundation IRCCS Cà Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Alberto Corsini
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences "Rodolfo Paoletti", Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Cesare Sirtori
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences "Rodolfo Paoletti", Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Ruscica
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences "Rodolfo Paoletti", Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
- Department of Cardio-Thoracic-Vascular Diseases, Foundation IRCCS Cà Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
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Sharif A, Mamo J, Lam V, Al-Salami H, Mooranian A, Watts GF, Clarnette R, Luna G, Takechi R. The therapeutic potential of probucol and probucol analogues in neurodegenerative diseases. Transl Neurodegener 2024; 13:6. [PMID: 38247000 PMCID: PMC10802046 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-024-00398-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/07/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative disorders present complex pathologies characterized by various interconnected factors, including the aggregation of misfolded proteins, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation and compromised blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity. Addressing such multifaceted pathways necessitates the development of multi-target therapeutic strategies. Emerging research indicates that probucol, a historic lipid-lowering medication, offers substantial potential in the realm of neurodegenerative disease prevention and treatment. Preclinical investigations have unveiled multifaceted cellular effects of probucol, showcasing its remarkable antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties, its ability to fortify the BBB and its direct influence on neural preservation and adaptability. These diverse effects collectively translate into enhancements in both motor and cognitive functions. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent findings highlighting the efficacy of probucol and probucol-related compounds in the context of various neurodegenerative conditions, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and cognitive impairment associated with diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arazu Sharif
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
- Curtin Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - John Mamo
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
- Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Research, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Virginie Lam
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Hani Al-Salami
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
- Curtin Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Armin Mooranian
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
- Curtin Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Gerald F Watts
- School of Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Roger Clarnette
- School of Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Giuseppe Luna
- Curtin Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Ryu Takechi
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia.
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia.
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Pickett JR, Wu Y, Zacchi LF, Ta HT. Targeting endothelial vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 in atherosclerosis: drug discovery and development of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1-directed novel therapeutics. Cardiovasc Res 2023; 119:2278-2293. [PMID: 37595265 PMCID: PMC10597632 DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvad130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Revised: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) has been well established as a critical contributor to atherosclerosis and consequently as an attractive therapeutic target for anti-atherosclerotic drug candidates. Many publications have demonstrated that disrupting the VCAM-1 function blocks monocyte infiltration into the sub-endothelial space, which effectively prevents macrophage maturation and foam cell transformation necessary for atherosclerotic lesion formation. Currently, most VCAM-1-inhibiting drug candidates in pre-clinical and clinical testing do not directly target VCAM-1 itself but rather down-regulate its expression by inhibiting upstream cytokines and transcriptional regulators. However, the pleiotropic nature of these regulators within innate immunity means that optimizing dosage to a level that suppresses pathological activity while preserving normal physiological function is extremely challenging and oftentimes infeasible. In recent years, highly specific pharmacological strategies that selectively inhibit VCAM-1 function have emerged, particularly peptide- and antibody-based novel therapeutics. Studies in such VCAM-1-directed therapies so far remain scarce and are limited by the constraints of current experimental atherosclerosis models in accurately representing the complex pathophysiology of the disease. This has prompted the need for a comprehensive review that recounts the evolution of VCAM-1-directed pharmaceuticals and addresses the current challenges in novel anti-atherosclerotic drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica R Pickett
- Queensland Micro- and Nanotechnology Centre (QMNC), Griffith University, West Creek Road, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Kessels Road, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia
| | - Yuao Wu
- Queensland Micro- and Nanotechnology Centre (QMNC), Griffith University, West Creek Road, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia
| | - Lucia F Zacchi
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology (AIBN), University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, the University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Hang T Ta
- Queensland Micro- and Nanotechnology Centre (QMNC), Griffith University, West Creek Road, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Kessels Road, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia
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Yamashita S, Arai H, Bujo H, Masuda D, Ohama T, Ishibashi T, Yanagi K, Doi Y, Nakagawa S, Yamashiro K, Tanabe K, Kita T, Matsuzaki M, Saito Y, Fukushima M, Matsuzawa Y. Probucol Trial for Secondary Prevention of Atherosclerotic Events in Patients with Coronary Heart Disease (PROSPECTIVE). J Atheroscler Thromb 2021; 28:103-123. [PMID: 32336695 PMCID: PMC7957028 DOI: 10.5551/jat.55327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Although intensive statin therapy reduced cardiovascular risks, cardiovascular events have not been completely prevented. Probucol is a potent antioxidant and reduces tendon xanthomas in familial hypercholesterolemia patients despite reduction of high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol (HDL-C). We investigated whether probucol can reduce cardiovascular events on top of conventional lipid-lowering therapy in patients with coronary heart disease (CHD). METHODS PROSPECTIVE is a multicenter, randomized, prospective study that recruited 876 Japanese patients with CHD and dyslipidemia with a low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol (LDL-C) level of ≥ 140 mg/dL without medication or those treated with lipid-lowering drugs. Lipid-lowering agents were administered during the study period in the control group (n=438), and probucol 500 mg/day was added to lipid-lowering therapy in the probucol group (n=438). Patients were randomly assigned to two treatment groups by adjusting the LDL-C level and presence of diabetes and hypertension and followed up for more than 3 years. The primary end point was a composite of cerebrovascular and cardiovascular events (cardiovascular disease death including sudden death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, nonfatal stroke, hospitalization for unstable angina, hospitalization for heart failure, or coronary revascularization). The secondary end point was carotid intima-media thickness in a subset of patients. RESULTS The incidence of the primary end point showed a trend to be lower in the probucol group compared with that in the control group despite reduced HDL-C without serious adverse events. Anti-atherogenic effects of probucol may be attributed to its potent antioxidative function and enhancement of reverse cholesterol transport. CONCLUSION Since there was no statistical significance between the probucol and control groups despite a marked reduction of HDL-C, further studies on the clinical outcomes of probucol on top of conventional therapy may be necessary in the future (UMIN000003307).
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Affiliation(s)
- Shizuya Yamashita
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Osaka, Japan
- Department of Community Medicine, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hidenori Arai
- The National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Obu, Aichi, Japan
| | - Hideaki Bujo
- Department of Clinical Laboratory and Experimental Research Medicine, Toho University, Sakura Medical Center, Sakura, Chiba, Japan
| | - Daisaku Masuda
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Tohru Ohama
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Osaka, Japan
- Department of Dental Anesthesiology, Osaka University Graduate School of Dentistry, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | | | - Koji Yanagi
- Kenporen Osaka Central Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yasuji Doi
- Saiseikai Senri Hospital, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Satoshi Nakagawa
- Translational Research Center for Medical Innovation, Foundation for Biomedical Research and Innovation at Kobe, Kobe, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Koichi Yamashiro
- Translational Research Center for Medical Innovation, Foundation for Biomedical Research and Innovation at Kobe, Kobe, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Kenichiro Tanabe
- Translational Research Center for Medical Innovation, Foundation for Biomedical Research and Innovation at Kobe, Kobe, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Toru Kita
- Kobe City College of Nursing, Kobe, Hyogo, Japan
| | | | - Yasushi Saito
- Chiba University Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba, Japan
| | - Masanori Fukushima
- Translational Research Center for Medical Innovation, Foundation for Biomedical Research and Innovation at Kobe, Kobe, Hyogo, Japan
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Cholesteryl ester transfer protein: An enigmatic pharmacology – Antagonists and agonists. Atherosclerosis 2018; 278:286-298. [DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2018.09.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Revised: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Probucol inhibits LPS-induced microglia activation and ameliorates brain ischemic injury in normal and hyperlipidemic mice. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2016; 37:1031-44. [PMID: 27345627 DOI: 10.1038/aps.2016.51] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 03/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM Increasing evidence suggests that probucol, a lipid-lowering agent with anti-oxidant activities, may be useful for the treatment of ischemic stroke with hyperlipidemia via reduction in cholesterol and neuroinflammation. In this study we examined whether probucol could protect against brain ischemic injury via anti-neuroinflammatory action in normal and hyperlipidemic mice. METHODS Primary mouse microglia and murine BV2 microglia were exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) for 3 h, and the release NO, PGE2, IL-1β and IL-6, as well as the changes in NF-κB, MAPK and AP-1 signaling pathways were assessed. ApoE KO mice were fed a high-fat diet containing 0.004%, 0.02%, 0.1% (wt/wt) probucol for 10 weeks, whereas normal C57BL/6J mice received probucol (3, 10, 30 mg·kg(-1)·d(-1), po) for 4 d. Then all the mice were subjected to focal cerebral ischemia through middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). The neurological deficits were scored 24 h after the surgery, and then brains were removed for measuring the cerebral infarct size and the production of pro-inflammatory mediators. RESULTS In LPS-treated BV2 cells and primary microglial cells, pretreatment with probucol (1, 5, 10 μmol/L) dose-dependently inhibited the release of NO, PGE2, IL-1β and IL-6, which occurred at the transcription levels. Furthermore, the inhibitory actions of probucol were associated with the downregulation of the NF-κB, MAPK and AP-1 signaling pathways. In the normal mice with MCAO, pre-administration of probucol dose-dependently decreased the infarct volume and improved neurological function. These effects were accompanied by the decreased production of pro-inflammatory mediators (iNOS, COX-2, IL-1, IL-6). In ApoE KO mice fed a high-fat diet, pre-administration of 0.1% probucol significantly reduced the infarct volume, improved the neurological deficits following MCAO, and decreased the total- and LDL-cholesterol levels. CONCLUSION Probucol inhibits LPS-induced microglia activation and ameliorates cerebral ischemic injury in normal and hyperlipidemic mice via its anti-neuroinflammatory actions, suggesting that probucol has potential for the treatment of patients with or at risk for ischemic stroke and hyperlipidemia.
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Pallebage-Gamarallage M, Takechi R, Lam V, Elahy M, Mamo J. Pharmacological modulation of dietary lipid-induced cerebral capillary dysfunction: Considerations for reducing risk for Alzheimer's disease. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 2015; 53:166-83. [PMID: 26678521 DOI: 10.3109/10408363.2015.1115820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
An increasing body of evidence suggests that cerebrovascular dysfunction and microvessel disease precede the evolution of hallmark pathological features that characterise Alzheimer's disease (AD), consistent with a causal association for onset or progression. Recent studies, principally in genetically unmanipulated animal models, suggest that chronic ingestion of diets enriched in saturated fats and cholesterol may compromise blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity resulting in inappropriate blood-to-brain extravasation of plasma proteins, including lipid macromolecules that may be enriched in amyloid-β (Aβ). Brain parenchymal retention of blood proteins and lipoprotein bound Aβ is associated with heightened neurovascular inflammation, altered redox homeostasis and nitric oxide (NO) metabolism. Therefore, it is a reasonable proposition that lipid-lowering agents may positively modulate BBB integrity and by extension attenuate risk or progression of AD. In addition to their robust lipid lowering properties, reported beneficial effects of lipid-lowering agents were attributed to their pleiotropic properties via modulation of inflammation, oxidative stress, NO and Aβ metabolism. The review is a contemporary consideration of a complex body of literature intended to synthesise focussed consideration of mechanisms central to regulation of BBB function and integrity. Emphasis is given to dietary fat driven significant epidemiological evidence consistent with heightened risk amongst populations consuming greater amounts of saturated fats and cholesterol. In addition, potential neurovascular benefits associated with the use of hypolipidemic statins, probucol and fenofibrate are also presented in the context of lipid-lowering and pleiotropic properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menuka Pallebage-Gamarallage
- a Faculty of Health Sciences , School of Public Health Curtin University , Perth , WA , Australia and.,b Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, Curtin University , Perth , WA , Australia
| | - Ryusuke Takechi
- a Faculty of Health Sciences , School of Public Health Curtin University , Perth , WA , Australia and.,b Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, Curtin University , Perth , WA , Australia
| | - Virginie Lam
- a Faculty of Health Sciences , School of Public Health Curtin University , Perth , WA , Australia and.,b Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, Curtin University , Perth , WA , Australia
| | - Mina Elahy
- a Faculty of Health Sciences , School of Public Health Curtin University , Perth , WA , Australia and.,b Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, Curtin University , Perth , WA , Australia
| | - John Mamo
- a Faculty of Health Sciences , School of Public Health Curtin University , Perth , WA , Australia and.,b Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, Curtin University , Perth , WA , Australia
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Fraser ST, Midwinter RG, Coupland LA, Kong S, Berger BS, Yeo JH, Andrade OC, Cromer D, Suarna C, Lam M, Maghzal GJ, Chong BH, Parish CR, Stocker R. Heme oxygenase-1 deficiency alters erythroblastic island formation, steady-state erythropoiesis and red blood cell lifespan in mice. Haematologica 2015; 100:601-10. [PMID: 25682599 DOI: 10.3324/haematol.2014.116368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2014] [Accepted: 02/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Heme oxygenase-1 is critical for iron recycling during red blood cell turnover, whereas its impact on steady-state erythropoiesis and red blood cell lifespan is not known. We show here that in 8- to 14-week old mice, heme oxygenase-1 deficiency adversely affects steady-state erythropoiesis in the bone marrow. This is manifested by a decrease in Ter-119(+)-erythroid cells, abnormal adhesion molecule expression on macrophages and erythroid cells, and a greatly diminished ability to form erythroblastic islands. Compared with wild-type animals, red blood cell size and hemoglobin content are decreased, while the number of circulating red blood cells is increased in heme oxygenase-1 deficient mice, overall leading to microcytic anemia. Heme oxygenase-1 deficiency increases oxidative stress in circulating red blood cells and greatly decreases the frequency of macrophages expressing the phosphatidylserine receptor Tim4 in bone marrow, spleen and liver. Heme oxygenase-1 deficiency increases spleen weight and Ter119(+)-erythroid cells in the spleen, although α4β1-integrin expression by these cells and splenic macrophages positive for vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 are both decreased. Red blood cell lifespan is prolonged in heme oxygenase-1 deficient mice compared with wild-type mice. Our findings suggest that while macrophages and relevant receptors required for red blood cell formation and removal are substantially depleted in heme oxygenase-1 deficient mice, the extent of anemia in these mice may be ameliorated by the prolonged lifespan of their oxidatively stressed erythrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart T Fraser
- Laboratory for Blood Cell Development, School of Medical Sciences (Physiology, Anatomy & Histology), Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Australia
| | - Robyn G Midwinter
- Centre for Vascular Research, School of Medical Sciences (Pathology) and Bosch Institute, The University of Sydney, Australia
| | - Lucy A Coupland
- The John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Stephanie Kong
- Vascular Biology Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute, Darlinghurst, Australia
| | - Birgit S Berger
- Centre for Vascular Research, School of Medical Sciences (Pathology) and Bosch Institute, The University of Sydney, Australia
| | - Jia Hao Yeo
- Laboratory for Blood Cell Development, School of Medical Sciences (Physiology, Anatomy & Histology), Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Australia
| | - Osvaldo Cooley Andrade
- Laboratory for Blood Cell Development, School of Medical Sciences (Physiology, Anatomy & Histology), Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Australia
| | - Deborah Cromer
- Complex Systems in Biology Group, Centre for Vascular Research, University of New South Wales, Kensington, Australia
| | - Cacang Suarna
- Centre for Vascular Research, School of Medical Sciences (Pathology) and Bosch Institute, The University of Sydney, Australia Vascular Biology Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute, Darlinghurst, Australia
| | - Magda Lam
- Centre for Vascular Research, School of Medical Sciences (Pathology) and Bosch Institute, The University of Sydney, Australia Vascular Biology Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute, Darlinghurst, Australia
| | - Ghassan J Maghzal
- Centre for Vascular Research, School of Medical Sciences (Pathology) and Bosch Institute, The University of Sydney, Australia Vascular Biology Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute, Darlinghurst, Australia School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Kensington
| | - Beng H Chong
- Department of Medicine, St George Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Kogarah, Australia
| | - Christopher R Parish
- The John Curtin School of Medical Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Roland Stocker
- Centre for Vascular Research, School of Medical Sciences (Pathology) and Bosch Institute, The University of Sydney, Australia Vascular Biology Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute, Darlinghurst, Australia School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Kensington
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Ma Q, Han Y, Chen C, Cao Y, Wang S, Shen W, Zhang H, Li Y, van Dongen MA, He B, Yu M, Xu L, Banaszak Holl MM, Liu G, Zhang Q, Qi R. Oral absorption enhancement of probucol by PEGylated G5 PAMAM dendrimer modified nanoliposomes. Mol Pharm 2015; 12:665-74. [PMID: 25587935 DOI: 10.1021/mp500388m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Probucol (PB), an antioxidant drug, is commonly used as a lipid concentration lowering drug to reduce blood plasma cholesterol levels in the clinic. However, the therapeutic effects of this drug are negatively impacted by its poor water solubility and low oral absorption efficiency. In this study, a PEGylated G5 PAMAM dendrimer (G5-PEG) modified nanoliposome was employed to increase water solubility, transepithelial transport, and oral absorption of PB. The uptake mechanism was explored in vitro in Caco-2 cells with the results suggesting that the absorption improvement of G5-PEG modified PB-liposome (PB-liposome/G5-PEG) was related to P-glycoprotein (P-gp) efflux pump but was independent of caveolae endocytosis pathways. Additionally, plasma lipid concentration lowering effects of PB-liposome/G5-PEG were evaluated in vivo in a LDLR-/- hyperlipidemia mouse model. Compared with saline treated group, treatment with PB-liposome/G5-PEG significantly inhibited the increase of plasma total cholesterol (TC) and triglyceride (TG) of mice induced by a high fat diet. Moreover, its lipid concentration lowering effects and plasma drug concentration were greater than PB alone or commercial PB tablets. Our results demonstrated that PB-liposome/G5-PEG significantly increased the oral absorption of PB and therefore significantly improved its pharmacodynamic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Ma
- Peking University Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Peking University , Beijing 100191, China
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Zhang Z, Cao H, Jiang S, Liu Z, He X, Yu H, Li Y. Nanoassembly of probucol enables novel therapeutic efficacy in the suppression of lung metastasis of breast cancer. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2014; 10:4735-4745. [PMID: 24930590 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201400799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2014] [Revised: 05/10/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Metastasis is one of the major obstacles hindering the success of cancer therapy. The directed nanoassembly of probucol results in the "DNP" system, which greatly improves the oral delivery of probucol and subsequently leads to a novel therapeutic efficacy of probucol in the suppression of lung metastasis of breast cancer. DNP is formed by employing the intermolecular hydrophobic interactions between probucol and polyethylene glycol p-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl)-phenyl ether (also known as Triton X-100). After oral administration, the probucol concentration in the intestines is surprisingly about 200 times higher if it is applied as DNP rather than free probucol; it can be absorbed into intestinal enterocytes via clathrin-mediated endocytosis and transported into the systemic circulation through the lymphatic pathway. Moreover, the oral bioavailability of probucol is significantly higher-13.55 times higher-when applied as DNP in place of free probucol. The drug concentration in major organs is also significantly increased. The in vitro measurements show that the migration and invasion abilities of 4T1 cells are obviously inhibited by DNP. In particular, in an orthotopic metastatic breast cancer model, the notable suppression of lung metastasis from DNP is observed, but no effect is seen from the free-probucol suspension. As a result, the directed drug nanoassembly may open a new route for enhancing oral drug delivery and enable new therapeutic abilities for probucol against cancer metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwen Zhang
- Center of Pharmaceutics, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 201203, China
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11
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Kim JH, Hong KW, Bae SS, Shin YI, Choi BT, Shin HK. Probucol plus cilostazol attenuate hypercholesterolemia‑induced exacerbation in ischemic brain injury via anti-inflammatory effects. Int J Mol Med 2014; 34:687-94. [PMID: 25017431 PMCID: PMC4121353 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2014.1848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2014] [Accepted: 06/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Probucol, a lipid-lowering agent with anti-oxidant properties, is involved in protection against atherosclerosis, while cilostazol, an antiplatelet agent, has diverse neuroprotective properties. In this study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of probucol and cilostazol on focal cerebral ischemia with hypercholesterolemia. Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) knockout (KO) mice were fed a high-fat diet (HFD) with or without 0.3% probucol and/or 0.2% cilostazol for 10 weeks. To assess the protective effects of the combined therapy of probucol and cilostazol on ischemic injury, the mice received 40 min of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Infarct volumes, neurobehavioral deficits and neuroinflammatory mediators were subsequently evaluated 48 h after reperfusion. Probucol alone and probucol plus cilostazol significantly decreased total- and low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol in ApoE KO with HFD. MCAO resulted in significantly larger infarct volumes in ApoE KO mice provided with HFD compared to those fed a regular diet, although these volumes were significantly reduced in the probucol plus cilostazol group. Consistent with a smaller infarct size, probucol alone and the combined treatment of probucol and cilostazol improved neurological and motor function. In addition, probucol alone and probucol plus cilostazol decreased MCP-1 expression and CD11b and GFAP immunoreactivity in the ischemic cortex. These findings suggested that the inhibitory effects of probucol plus cilostazol in MCP-1 expression in the ischemic brain with hypercholesterolemia allowed the identification of one of the mechanisms responsible for anti-inflammatory action. Probucol plus cilostazol may therefore serve as a therapeutic strategy for reducing the impact of stroke in hypercholesterolemic subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Hyun Kim
- Division of Meridian and Structural Medicine, School of Korean Medicine, Pusan National University, Yangsan, Gyeongnam 626-870, Republic of Korea
| | - Ki Whan Hong
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Pusan National University, Yangsan, Gyeongnam 626-870, Republic of Korea
| | - Sun Sik Bae
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Pusan National University, Yangsan, Gyeongnam 626-870, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Il Shin
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, School of Medicine, Pusan National University, Yangsan, Gyeongnam 626-870, Republic of Korea
| | - Byung Tae Choi
- Division of Meridian and Structural Medicine, School of Korean Medicine, Pusan National University, Yangsan, Gyeongnam 626-870, Republic of Korea
| | - Hwa Kyoung Shin
- Division of Meridian and Structural Medicine, School of Korean Medicine, Pusan National University, Yangsan, Gyeongnam 626-870, Republic of Korea
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Li S, Liang J, Niimi M, Bilal Waqar A, Kang D, Koike T, Wang Y, Shiomi M, Fan J. Probucol Suppresses Macrophage Infiltration and MMP Expression in Atherosclerotic Plaques of WHHL Rabbits. J Atheroscler Thromb 2014; 21:648-58. [DOI: 10.5551/jat.21600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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13
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Tanous D, Hime N, Stocker R. Anti-atherosclerotic and anti-diabetic properties of probucol and related compounds. Redox Rep 2013; 13:48-59. [DOI: 10.1179/135100008x259196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
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14
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Li T, Chen W, An F, Tian H, Zhang J, Peng J, Zhang Y, Guo Y. Probucol attenuates inflammation and increases stability of vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques in rabbits. TOHOKU J EXP MED 2012; 225:23-34. [PMID: 21852751 DOI: 10.1620/tjem.225.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Probucol, a lipid-lowering agent with anti-oxidant properties, has been implicated in protection against atherogenesis, whereas its effect on plaques stability remains to be fully elucidated. The present study was aimed to test the hypothesis that probucol may attenuate inflammation and increase stability of vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques using a rabbit model. After abdominal aortic balloon injury, 45 rabbits were fed a 1% cholesterol diet for 24 weeks. From week 12 to week 24, the animals were treated with probucol (1% by weight in the diet), simvastatin (5 mg·kg(-1), positive control) or no drugs (control), respectively. At the end of week 22, recombinant-p53 adenovirus was injected into the abdominal aortic plaques. Two weeks later, plaque disruption was induced by injection of Chinese Russell's viper venom and histamine. The results showed that the incidence of plaque disruption in probucol or simvastatin groups was significantly lower than that in the control group (7.15% or 14.29% vs. 71.43% respectively, both P < 0.01). Probucol significantly increased the thickness of fibrous caps and decreased plaque vulnerability index. Serum concentrations of inflammatory cytokines and matrix metalloproteinases, and expression levels of Toll-like receptor (TLR)-2, TLR-4, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, intercellular adhesion molecule 1, scavenger receptor A, CD36 and oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor 1 within the lesions were markedly lower in both treatment groups than in the control group. We conclude that probucol increases the stability of vulnerable plaques, possibly through its lipid lowering, anti-inflammation and scavenger receptors suppression effects, suggesting probucol as a promising pharmacologic approach to stabilize vulnerable plaques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Li
- The Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Chinese Ministry of Education and Chinese Ministry of Health, China
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Sakamoto J, Izumi C, Takahashi S, Hashiwada S, Nakajima S, Nishiga M, Yamao K, Hanazawa K, Miyake M, Tamura T, Kondo H, Motooka M, Kaitani K, Nakagawa Y. Marked regression of aortic plaque by intensive cholesterol-lowering therapy. J Atheroscler Thromb 2011; 18:421-4. [PMID: 21242651 DOI: 10.5551/jat.6387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
A 65-year-old man with rheumatic combined valvular heart disease showed a persistent fever after cardiac catheterization. He was diagnosed with cholesterol embolism due to multiple mobile plaques in the descending thoracic aorta by transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) along with persistent eosinophilia, deteriorating renal function, and blue toe sign. He was treated with intensive cholesterol-lowering therapy for 3 years, resulting in marked regression of the aortic plaque on TEE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiro Sakamoto
- Department of Cardiology, Tenri Hospital, Nara, Japan.
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Ahmed TAN, Karalis I, Jukema JW. Emerging drugs for coronary artery disease. From past achievements and current needs to clinical promises. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs 2011; 16:203-33. [DOI: 10.1517/14728214.2011.549606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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17
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Aggarwal A, Singh S. Newer antiatherosclerosis treatment strategies. HEART ASIA 2011; 3:26-30. [PMID: 27325976 DOI: 10.1136/ha.2010.003129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis has been a target of much clinical and molecular research. As a result of this extensive research, it is amply clear that atherogenesis is a multifactorial process involving an interplay of metabolic, immune and inflammatory mechanisms. Antiatherosclerotic strategies are today aiming for a multipronged approach targeting each arm of this multifactorial process. The newer agents under development can be divided into three broad categories: anti-inflammatory agents, modulators of intermediary metabolism and antiatherosclerosis vaccines. Potential targets for anti-inflammatory agents include inhibition of conversion of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) to oxidised LDL, blocking or downregulation of cell adhesion molecules, chemokine modulation and macrophage receptor blockade. Beyond inhibition of plaque formation, efforts are also ongoing to develop agents which stabilise the plaque by increasing its fibrous content and inhibiting its disruption. So far as research in the sphere of intermediary metabolism is concerned, the focus is now primarily on raising high-density lipoprotein and promoting reverse cholesterol transport; potential targets include cholesteryl ester transfer protein, liver X-receptor, lecithin cholesterol acyltransferase and high-density lipoprotein mimetics. Acyl-coenzymeA: cholesterol acyltransferase is another enzyme whose selective and differential inhibition is under active investigation. The concept of immunisation against a non-communicable disease such as atherosclerosis is still in its nascent stages. However, with increasing evidence to suggest the role of antigen-specific T-cell-mediated immunity in atherogenesis, this approach is potentially promising. Possible antigens under evaluation include oxidised LDL and its subparticles, heat-shock proteins and cholesteryl ester transfer protein. With cardiovascular disease being the single leading cause of death worldwide, the development of a safe and successful antiatherosclerosis strategy (possibly employing a combination of agents acting at various levels) will indeed be a major 21st-century achievement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amitesh Aggarwal
- Department of Medicine, University College of Medical Sciences, University of Delhi & GTB Hospital, Delhi, India; Department of Preventive Cardiology, University College of Medical Sciences, University of Delhi & GTB Hospital, Delhi, India
| | - Safal Singh
- Department of Medicine, University College of Medical Sciences, University of Delhi & GTB Hospital, Delhi, India; Department of Preventive Cardiology, University College of Medical Sciences, University of Delhi & GTB Hospital, Delhi, India
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Du J, Wang L, Liu X, Zhou H, Fan Q, Luo J, Yao L, Wang J, Feng J, Ma J. Janus kinase 2/signal transducers and activators of transcription signal inhibition regulates protective effects of probucol on mesangial cells treated with high glucose. Biol Pharm Bull 2010; 33:768-72. [PMID: 20460752 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.33.768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Probucol is a cholesterol-lowering drug with an anti-proliferative effect. Excessive growth of glomerular mesangial cells and overexpression of transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) and connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) are the pathological features of diabetic nephropathy. In this study, human mesangial cells (HMCs) treated with high glucose showed the above-mentioned features through the activation of Janus kinase 2 (JAK2)/signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT) pathway. Probucol can suppress cell proliferation, down-regulate mRNA and protein levels of TGF-beta1 and CTGF in HMCs treated with high glucose. Phosphorylation of JAK2, STAT1 and STAT3 caused by high glucose was obviously prevented in HMCs pretreated with probucol, indicating that the protective effect of probucol on HMCs might be through the inhibition of JAK2/STAT pathway. Therefore, probucol could be a potential therapeutic agent for diabetic nephropathy, and this paper provides new insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying probucol's effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Du
- Department of Nephrology, First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, PR China
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Yamashita S, Matsuzawa Y. Where are we with probucol: A new life for an old drug? Atherosclerosis 2009; 207:16-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2009.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2008] [Revised: 04/02/2009] [Accepted: 04/02/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Stocker R. Molecular mechanisms underlying the antiatherosclerotic and antidiabetic effects of probucol, succinobucol, and other probucol analogues. Curr Opin Lipidol 2009; 20:227-35. [PMID: 19373083 DOI: 10.1097/mol.0b013e32832aee68] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW New therapies for the management of cardiovascular disease remain highly desirable, yet the recently developed agents, such as the cholesterylester transfer protein inhibitor torcetrapib, the antidiabetic agent rosiglitazone, and anti-inflammatory inhibitors of cyclooxygenase-2, have failed. In this review, the more recent developments in the molecular mechanisms underlying the beneficial activities of probucol and related compounds are described. RECENT FINDINGS In-vivo and in-vitro studies have revealed that several of the protective activities of probucol can be explained by the ability of this drug to induce the enzyme heme oxygenase-1. It is now apparent that the sulfur atoms, rather than the phenol moieties of probucol, are required for its antiatherogenic and antirestenotic activities. Compounds related to probucol that have improved efficacy without the adverse effects offer promise as novel therapies of cardiovascular disease. Recent results suggest these compounds may also be used for the prevention of type-2 diabetes, a disease that is increasing in prevalence and importance worldwide. SUMMARY The development of derivatives of probucol targeting anti-inflammatory and antioxidant processes, perhaps via induction of heme oxygenase-1, may add to the armamentarium of current agents used in treatment of atherosclerotic disease and diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Stocker
- Centre for Vascular Research, School of Medical Sciences (Pathology) and Bosch Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.
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Bibliography. Current world literature. Atherosclerosis: cell biology and lipoproteins. Curr Opin Lipidol 2008; 19:525-35. [PMID: 18769235 DOI: 10.1097/mol.0b013e328312bffc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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