Altered protein S-glutathionylation identifies a potential mechanism of resistance to acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity

Ablating the glutaredoxin-2 (Glrx2) gene protects male mice against non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) by limiting oxidative distress

In the present study, we investigated the consequences of deleting the glutaredoxin-2 gene (Glrx2-/-) on the development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in male and female C57BL6N mice fed a control (CD) or high-fat diet (HFD). We report that the HFD induced a significant increase in body mass in the wild-type (Wt) and Glrx2-/- male, but not female, mice, which was associated with the hypertrophying of the abdominal fat. Interestingly, while the Wt male mice fed the HFD developed NAFLD, the deletion of the Glrx2 gene mitigated vesicle formation, intrahepatic lipid accumulation, and fibrosis in the males. The protective effect associated with ablating the Glrx2 gene in male mice was due to enhancement of mitochondrial redox buffering capacity. Specifically, liver mitochondria from male Glrx2-/- fed a CD or HFD produced significantly less hydrogen peroxide (mtH2O2), had lower malondialdehyde levels, greater activities for glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase, and less protein glutathione mixed disulfides (PSSG) when compared to the Wt male mice fed the HFD. These effects correlated with the S-glutathionylation of α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (KGDH), a potent mtH2O2 source and key redox sensor in hepatic mitochondria. In comparison to the male mice, both Wt and Glrx2-/- female mice displayed almost complete resistance to HFD-induced body mass increases and the development of NAFLD, which was attributed to the superior redox buffering capacity of the liver mitochondria. Together, our findings show that modulation of mitochondrial S-glutathionylation signaling through Glrx2 augments resistance of male mice towards the development of NAFLD through preservation of mitochondrial redox buffering capacity. Additionally, our findings demonstrate the sex dimorphisms associated with the manifestation of NAFLD is related to the superior redox buffering capacity and modulation of the S-glutathionylome in hepatic mitochondria from female mice.

Glutaredoxin-1 alleviates acetaminophen-induced liver injury by decreasing its toxic metabolites

Excessive N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI) formation is a starting event that triggers oxidative stress and subsequent hepatocyte necrosis in acetaminophen (APAP) overdose caused acute liver failure (ALF). S-glutathionylation is a reversible redox post-translational modification and a prospective mechanism of APAP hepatotoxicity. Glutaredoxin-1 (Glrx1), a glutathione-specific thioltransferase, is a primary enzyme to catalyze deglutathionylation. The objective of this study was to explored whether and how Glrx1 is associated with the development of ALF induced by APAP. The Glrx1 knockout mice (Glrx1-/-) and liver-specific overexpression of Glrx1 (AAV8-Glrx1) mice were produced and underwent APAP-induced ALF. Pirfenidone (PFD), a potential inducer of Glrx1, was administrated preceding APAP to assess its protective effects. Our results revealed that the hepatic total protein S-glutathionylation (PSSG) increased and the Glrx1 level reduced in mice after APAP toxicity. Glrx1-/- mice were more sensitive to APAP overdose, with higher oxidative stress and more toxic metabolites of APAP. This was attributed to Glrx1 deficiency increasing the total hepatic PSSG and the S-glutathionylation of cytochrome p450 3a11 (Cyp3a11), which likely increased the activity of Cyp3a11. Conversely, AAV8-Glrx1 mice were defended against liver damage caused by APAP overdose by inhibiting the S-glutathionylation and activity of Cyp3a11, which reduced the toxic metabolites of APAP and oxidative stress. PFD precede administration upregulated Glrx1 expression and alleviated APAP-induced ALF by decreasing oxidative stress. We have identified the function of Glrx1 mediated PSSG in liver injury caused by APAP overdose. Increasing Glrx1 expression may be investigated for the medical treatment of APAP-caused hepatic injury.

Conditions Conducive to the Glutathionylation of Complex I Subunit NDUFS1 Augment ROS Production following the Oxidation of Ubiquinone Linked Substrates, Glycerol-3-Phosphate and Proline

Mitochondrial complex I can produce large quantities of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by reverse electron transfer (RET) from the ubiquinone (UQ) pool. Glutathionylation of complex I does induce increased mitochondrial superoxide/hydrogen peroxide (O2●-/H2O2) production, but the source of this ROS has not been identified. Here, we interrogated the glutathionylation of complex I subunit NDUFS1 and examined if its modification can result in increased ROS production during RET from the UQ pool. We also assessed glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPD) and proline dehydrogenase (PRODH) glutathionylation since both flavoproteins have measurable rates for ROS production as well. Induction of glutathionylation with disulfiram induced a significant increase in O2●-/H2O2 production during glycerol-3-phosphate (G3P) and proline (Pro) oxidation. Treatment of mitochondria with inhibitors for complex I (rotenone and S1QEL), complex III (myxothiazol and S3QEL), glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (iGP), and proline dehydrogenase (TFA) confirmed that the sites for this increase were complexes I and III, respectively. Treatment of liver mitochondria with disulfiram (50-1000 nM) did not induce GPD or PRODH glutathionylation, nor did it affect their activities, even though disulfiram dose-dependently increased the total number of protein glutathione mixed disulfides (PSSG). Immunocapture of complex I showed disulfiram incubations resulted in the modification of NDUFS1 subunit in complex I. Glutathionylation could be reversed by reducing agents, restoring the deglutathionylated state of NDUFS1 and the activity of the complex. Reduction of glutathionyl moieties in complex I also significantly decreased ROS production by RET from GPD and PRODH. Overall, these findings demonstrate that the modification of NDUFS1 can result in increased ROS production during RET from the UQ pool, which has implications for understanding the relationship between mitochondrial glutathionylation reactions and induction of oxidative distress in several pathologies.

An update on methods and approaches for interrogating mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production

The chief ROS formed by mitochondria are superoxide (O2·−) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). Superoxide is converted rapidly to H₂O₂ and therefore the latter is the chief ROS emitted by mitochondria into the cell. Once considered an unavoidable by-product of aerobic respiration, H₂O₂ is now regarded as a central mitokine used in mitochondrial redox signaling. However, it has been postulated that O2·− can also serve as a signal in mammalian cells. Progress in understanding the role of mitochondrial H₂O₂ in signaling is due to significant advances in the development of methods and technologies for its detection. Unfortunately, the development of techniques to selectively measure basal O2·− changes has been met with more significant hurdles due to its short half-life and the lack of specific probes. The development of sensitive techniques for the selective and real time measure of O2·− and H₂O₂ has come on two fronts: development of genetically encoded fluorescent proteins and small molecule reporters. In 2015, I published a detailed comprehensive review on the state of knowledge for mitochondrial ROS production and how it is controlled, which included an in-depth discussion of the up-to-date methods utilized for the detection of both superoxide (O2·−) and H₂O₂. In the article, I presented the challenges associated with utilizing these probes and their significance in advancing our collective understanding of ROS signaling. Since then, many other authors in the field of Redox Biology have published articles on the challenges and developments detecting O2·− and H₂O₂ in various organisms [[1], [2], [3]]. There has been significant advances in this state of knowledge, including the development of novel genetically encoded fluorescent H₂O₂ probes, several O2·− sensors, and the establishment of a toolkit of inhibitors and substrates for the interrogation of mitochondrial H₂O₂ production and the antioxidant defenses utilized to maintain the cellular H₂O₂ steady-state. Here, I provide an update on these methods and their implementation in furthering our understanding of how mitochondria serve as cell ROS stabilizing devices for H₂O₂ signaling.

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Details on the toolkit for interrogating the 12 sites for mitochondrial ROS production.

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Approaches to assess mitochondrial ROS clearance.

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Novel genetically encoded H₂O₂ sensors.

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Small chemical probes for sensitive detection of O2·−.

Nevirapine Biotransformation Insights: An Integrated In Vitro Approach Unveils the Biocompetence and Glutathiolomic Profile of a Human Hepatocyte-Like Cell 3D Model

The need for competent in vitro liver models for toxicological assessment persists. The differentiation of stem cells into hepatocyte-like cells (HLC) has been adopted due to its human origin and availability. Our aim was to study the usefulness of an in vitro 3D model of mesenchymal stem cell-derived HLCs. 3D spheroids (3D-HLC) or monolayer (2D-HLC) cultures of HLCs were treated with the hepatotoxic drug nevirapine (NVP) for 3 and 10 days followed by analyses of Phase I and II metabolites, biotransformation enzymes and drug transporters involved in NVP disposition. To ascertain the toxic effects of NVP and its major metabolites, the changes in the glutathione net flux were also investigated. Phase I enzymes were induced in both systems yielding all known correspondent NVP metabolites. However, 3D-HLCs showed higher biocompetence in producing Phase II NVP metabolites and upregulating Phase II enzymes and MRP7. Accordingly, NVP-exposure led to decreased glutathione availability and alterations in the intracellular dynamics disfavoring free reduced glutathione and glutathionylated protein pools. Overall, these results demonstrate the adequacy of the 3D-HLC model for studying the bioactivation/metabolism of NVP representing a further step to unveil toxicity mechanisms associated with glutathione net flux changes.

Liver-Metabolizing Genes and Their Relationship to the Performance of Elite Spanish Male Endurance Athletes; a Prospective Transversal Study

Background

The genetic profile that is needed to define an endurance athlete has been studied during recent years. The main objective of this work is to approach for the first time the study of genetic variants in liver-metabolizing genes and their role in endurance performance by comparing the allelic and genotypic frequencies in elite endurance athletes to the non-athlete population.

Methods

Genotypic and allelic frequencies were determined in 123 elite endurance athletes (75 professional road cyclists and 48 endurance elite runners) and 122 male non-athlete subjects (sedentary). Genotyping of cytochrome P450 family 2 subfamily D member 6 (CYP2D6 rs3892097), glutathione-S transferase mu isoform 1 (GSTM1), glutathione S-transferase pi (GSTP rs1695) and glutathione S-transferase theta (GSTT) genes was performed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The combination of the polymorphisms for the “optimal” polygenic profile has been quantified using the genotype score (GS).

Results

Statistical differences were found in the genetic distributions between elite endurance athletes and non-athletes in CYP2D6 (p < 0.001) and GSTT (p = 0.014) genes. The binary logistic regression model showed a favourable OR (odds ratio) of being an elite endurance runner against a professional road cyclist (OR: 2.403, 95% CI: 1.213–4.760 (p = 0.002)) in the polymorphisms studied.

Conclusions

Genotypic distribution of liver-metabolizing genes in elite endurance athletes is different to non-athlete subjects, with a favourable gene profile in elite endurance athletes in terms of detoxification capacity.

Cysteine Glutathionylation Acts as a Redox Switch in Endothelial Cells

Oxidative post-translational modifications (oxPTM) of receptors, enzymes, ion channels and transcription factors play an important role in cell signaling. oxPTMs are a key way in which oxidative stress can influence cell behavior during diverse pathological settings such as cardiovascular diseases (CVD), cancer, neurodegeneration and inflammatory response. In addition, changes in oxPTM are likely to be ways in which low level reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) may contribute to redox signaling, exerting changes in physiological responses including angiogenesis, cardiac remodeling and embryogenesis. Among oxPTM, S-glutathionylation of reactive cysteines emerges as an important regulator of vascular homeostasis by modulating endothelial cell (EC) responses to their local redox environment. This review summarizes the latest findings of S-glutathionylated proteins in major EC pathways, and the functional consequences on vascular pathophysiology. This review highlights the diversity of molecules affected by S-glutathionylation, and the complex consequences on EC function, thereby demonstrating an intricate dual role of RONS-induced S-glutathionylation in maintaining vascular homeostasis and participating in various pathological processes.

Protein S-glutathionylation: The linchpin for the transmission of regulatory information on redox buffering capacity in mitochondria

Protein S-glutathionylation reactions are a ubiquitous oxidative modification required to control protein function in response to changes in redox buffering capacity. These reactions are rapid and reversible and are, for the most part, enzymatically mediated by glutaredoxins (GRX) and glutathione S-transferases (GST). Protein S-glutathionylation has been found to control a range of cell functions in response to different physiological cues. Although these reactions occur throughout the cell, mitochondrial proteins seem to be highly susceptible to reversible S-glutathionylation, a feature attributed to the unique physical properties of this organelle. Indeed, mitochondria contain a number of S-glutathionylation targets which includes proteins involved in energy metabolism, solute transport, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, proton leaks, apoptosis, antioxidant defense, and mitochondrial fission and fusion. Moreover, it has been found that conjugation and removal of glutathione from proteins in mitochondria fulfills a number of important physiological roles and defects in these reactions can have some dire pathological consequences. Here, we provide an updated overview on mitochondrial protein S-glutathionylation reactions and their importance in cell functions and physiology.

Mechanistic insights of hepatoprotective effects of curcumin: Therapeutic updates and future prospects

The liver is the most essential organ of the body performing vital functions. Hepatic disorders affect the physiological and biochemical functions of the body. These disorders include hepatitis B, hepatitis C, alcoholic liver disease (ALD), nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), liver cirrhosis, hepatic failure and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Drugs related hepatotoxicity is one of the major challenges facing by clinicians as it is a leading cause of liver failure. During post-marketing surveillance studies, detection and reporting of drug-induced hepatotoxicity may lead to drug withdrawal or warnings. Several mechanisms are involved in hepatotoxicity such as cell membrane disruption, initiating an immune response, alteration of cellular pathways of drug metabolism, accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation and cell death. Curcumin, the active ingredient of turmeric and exhibits therapeutic potential for the treatment of diabetes, cardiovascular disorders and various types of cancers. Curcumin is strong anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects and thus it possesses hepatoprotective properties. Despite its low bioavailability, its hepatoprotective effects have been studied in various protocols of hepatotoxicity including acetaminophen, alcohol, lindane, carbon tetrachloride (CCL₄), diethylnitrosamine and heavy metals induced hepatotoxicities. This report reviews the hepatoprotective effects of curcumin with a focus on its mechanistic insights in various hepatotoxic protocols.

Mitoproteomics: Tackling Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Human Disease

Mitochondria are highly dynamic and regulated organelles that historically have been defined based on their crucial role in cell metabolism. However, they are implicated in a variety of other important functions, making mitochondrial dysfunction an important axis in several pathological contexts. Despite that conventional biochemical and molecular biology approaches have provided significant insight into mitochondrial functionality, innovative techniques that provide a global view of the mitochondrion are still necessary. Proteomics fulfils this need by enabling accurate, systems-wide quantitative analysis of protein abundance. More importantly, redox proteomics approaches offer unique opportunities to tackle oxidative stress, a phenomenon that is intimately linked to aging, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. In addition, cutting-edge proteomics approaches reveal how proteins exert their functions in complex interaction networks where even subtle alterations stemming from early pathological states can be monitored. Here, we describe the proteomics approaches that will help to deepen the role of mitochondria in health and disease by assessing not only changes to mitochondrial protein composition but also alterations to their redox state and how protein interaction networks regulate mitochondrial function and dynamics. This review is aimed at showing the reader how the application of proteomics approaches during the last 20 years has revealed crucial mitochondrial roles in the context of aging, neurodegenerative disorders, metabolic disease, and cancer.

Mammalian Sulfur Amino Acid Metabolism: A Nexus Between Redox Regulation, Nutrition, Epigenetics, and Detoxification

SIGNIFICANCE

Transsulfuration allows conversion of methionine into cysteine using homocysteine (Hcy) as an intermediate. This pathway produces S-adenosylmethionine (AdoMet), a key metabolite for cell function, and provides 50% of the cysteine needed for hepatic glutathione synthesis. The route requires the intake of essential nutrients (e.g., methionine and vitamins) and is regulated by their availability. Transsulfuration presents multiple interconnections with epigenetics, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and glutathione synthesis, polyol and pentose phosphate pathways, and detoxification that rely mostly in the exchange of substrates or products. Major hepatic diseases, rare diseases, and sensorineural disorders, among others that concur with oxidative stress, present impaired transsulfuration. Recent Advances: In contrast to the classical view, a nuclear branch of the pathway, potentiated under oxidative stress, is emerging. Several transsulfuration proteins regulate gene expression, suggesting moonlighting activities. In addition, abnormalities in Hcy metabolism link nutrition and hearing loss.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Knowledge about the crossregulation between pathways is mostly limited to the hepatic availability/removal of substrates and inhibitors. However, advances regarding protein-protein interactions involving oncogenes, identification of several post-translational modifications (PTMs), and putative moonlighting activities expand the potential impact of transsulfuration beyond methylations and Hcy.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Increasing the knowledge on transsulfuration outside the liver, understanding the protein-protein interaction networks involving these enzymes, the functional role of their PTMs, or the mechanisms controlling their nucleocytoplasmic shuttling may provide further insights into the pathophysiological implications of this pathway, allowing design of new therapeutic interventions. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 29, 408-452.

Reactive Metabolite-induced Protein Glutathionylation: A Potentially Novel Mechanism Underlying Acetaminophen Hepatotoxicity

Although covalent protein binding is established as the pivotal event underpinning acetaminophen (APAP) toxicity, its mechanistic details remain unclear. In this study, we demonstrated that APAP induces widespread protein glutathionylation in a time-, dose- and bioactivation-dependent manner in HepaRG cells. Proteo-metabonomic mapping provided evidence that APAP-induced glutathionylation resulted in functional deficits in energy metabolism, elevations in oxidative stress and cytosolic calcium, as well as mitochondrial dysfunction that correlate strongly with the well-established toxicity features of APAP. We also provide novel evidence that APAP-induced glutathionylation of carnitine O-palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT1) and voltage-dependent anion-selective channel protein 1 are respectively involved in inhibition of fatty acid β-oxidation and opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore. Importantly, we show that the inhibitory effect of CPT1 glutathionylation can be mitigated by PPARα induction, which provides a mechanistic explanation for the prophylactic effect of fibrates, which are PPARα ligands, against APAP toxicity. Finally, we propose that APAP-induced protein glutathionylation likely occurs secondary to covalent binding, which is a previously unknown mechanism of glutathionylation, suggesting that this post-translational modification could be functionally implicated in drug-induced toxicity.

Treatment of acetaminophen-induced liver injury with exogenous mitochondria in mice

Drug-induced liver injury shares a common feature of mitochondrial dysfunction. Mitochondrial therapy (mitotherapy), which replaces malfunctional mitochondria with functional exogenous mitochondria, may be a fundamental approach for treating drug-mediated hepatotoxicity. Here, we suggested that mitochondria isolated from human hepatoma cell could be used to treat acetaminophen (APAP)-induced liver injury in mice. When the mitochondria were added into the cell media, they could enter primarily cultured mouse hepatocyte. When the mitochondria were intravenously injected into mice, they distribute in several tissues, including liver. In the model mice of APAP-induced liver injury, mitochondria treatment increased hepatocyte energy supply, reduced oxidation stress, and consequently ameliorated tissue injury. The study suggests that exogenous mitochondria could be an effective therapeutic strategy in treating APAP-induced liver injury.

Paracetamol metabolism, hepatotoxicity, biomarkers and therapeutic interventions: a perspective

After over 60 years of therapeutic use in the UK, paracetamol (acetaminophen, N-acetyl-p-aminophenol, APAP) remains the subject of considerable research into both its mode of action and toxicity. The pharmacological properties of APAP are the focus of some activity, with the role of the metabolite N-arachidonoylaminophenol (AM404) still a topic of debate. However, that the hepatotoxicity of APAP results from the production of the reactive metabolite N-acetyl-p-benzoquinoneimine (NAPQI/NABQI) that can deplete glutathione, react with cellular macromolecules, and initiate cell death, is now beyond dispute. The disruption of cellular pathways that results from the production of NAPQI provides a source of potential biomarkers of the severity of the damage. Research in this area has provided new diagnostic markers such as the microRNA miR-122 as well as mechanistic biomarkers associated with apoptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation and tissue regeneration. Additionally, biomarkers of, and systems biology models for, glutathione depletion have been developed. Furthermore, there have been significant advances in determining the role of both the innate immune system and genetic factors that might predispose individuals to APAP-mediated toxicity. This perspective highlights some of the progress in current APAP-related research.

Multiple perspectives of qingkailing injection-fraction-single compound in revealing the hepatotoxicity of baicalin and hyodeoxycholic acid

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The complexity of ingredients in traditional Chinese medical formulas and the limited consideration of toxicological responses are fundamental issues that hamper prognostic information of drug quality control.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A multidisciplinary approach for quality control of Qingkailing injection (QKL) regarding drug induced liver toxicity was described for the first time. High content image analysis (HCA) was combined with reverse-phase chromatographic separation and high-resolution MS detection technologies to provide the dynamic responses of drug induced HepG2 cell injury. Firstly, a simple and rapid method for simultaneous qualification and quantification of 21 major constituents in QKL was established and validated using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-hybrid quadrupole-Orbitrap mass spectrometer (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap), which were operated in full MS/dd-MS² mode and thus simultaneously acquired quantitative high resolution (HR) full scan data and confirmatory HR MS² data. Secondly, repeated semi-preparation HPLC was applied to obtain four fractions (F1-F4) for HCS analysis. Finally, potential hepatotoxicity was determined by five hepatotoxicity biomarkers, including cell loss, DNA condense, glutathione (GSH) depletion, reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, and mitochondria membrane potential (MMP) depolarization.

RESULTS

The detection in polarity switching mode empowered the coverage of comprehensive constituents with different chemical properties. Satisfactory linearity precisions, repeatability, stability, and recovery were achieved. QKL injection significantly induced HepG2 cell injury above the concentration of 1.25% (v/v). Meanwhile, flavone glycosides (F3) and stinasterols (F4) fractions exhibited hepatotoxicity above 75μg/mL and 50μg/mL, respectively. Still further, baicalin originated from F3 significantly caused cell loss and glutathione (GSH) depletion. In parallel, hyodeoxycholic acid from F4 induced cell loss, nucleus condense, and GSH reduction as well.

CONCLUSIONS

Our work provides multiple perspectives based on injection-fractions-single compound format to improve QKL pharmacovigilance through revealing the potential hepatotoxic material basis. Additionally, our study provides an integrating paradigm for the comprehensive and systematic quality control of traditional Chinese medical formulas.

Measuring in vivo responses to endogenous and exogenous oxidative stress using a novel haem oxygenase 1 reporter mouse

Key points

Haem oxygenase 1 (Hmox1) is a cytoprotective enzyme with anti‐inflammatory and anti‐oxidant properties that is induced in response to multiple noxious environmental stimuli and disease states.

Tools to enable its expression to be monitored in vivo have been unavailable until now.

In a new Hmox1 reporter model we provide high‐fidelity, single‐cell resolution blueprints for Hmox1 expression throughout the body of mice.

We show for the first time that Hmox1 is constitutively expressed at barrier tissues at the interface between the internal and external environments, and that it is highly induced in muscle cells during systemic inflammation.

These data suggest novel biological insights into the role of Hmox1 and pave the way for the use of the model to study the role of environmental stress in disease pathology.

Abstract

Hmox1 protein holds great promise as a biomarker of in vivo stress responses as it is highly induced in stressed or damaged cells. However, Hmox1 expression patterns have thus far only been available in simple model organisms with limited relevance to humans. We now report a new Hmox1 reporter line that makes it possible to obtain this information in mice, a premiere model system for studying human disease and toxicology. Using a state‐of‐the‐art strategy, we expressed multiple complementary reporter molecules from the murine Hmox1 locus, including firefly luciferase, to allow long‐term, non‐invasive imaging of Hmox1 expression, and β‐galactosidase for high‐resolution mapping of expression patterns post‐mortem. We validated the model by confirming the fidelity of reporter expression, and its responsiveness to oxidative and inflammatory stimuli. In addition to providing blueprints for Hmox1 expression in mice that provide novel biological insights, this work paves the way for the broad application of this model to establish cellular stresses induced by endogenous processes and those resulting from exposure to drugs and environmental agents. It will also enable studies on the role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of disease and its prevention.

Haem oxygenase 1 (Hmox1) is a cytoprotective enzyme with anti‐inflammatory and anti‐oxidant properties that is induced in response to multiple noxious environmental stimuli and disease states.

Tools to enable its expression to be monitored in vivo have been unavailable until now.

In a new Hmox1 reporter model we provide high‐fidelity, single‐cell resolution blueprints for Hmox1 expression throughout the body of mice.

We show for the first time that Hmox1 is constitutively expressed at barrier tissues at the interface between the internal and external environments, and that it is highly induced in muscle cells during systemic inflammation.

These data suggest novel biological insights into the role of Hmox1 and pave the way for the use of the model to study the role of environmental stress in disease pathology.

Unmasking efavirenz neurotoxicity: Time matters to the underlying mechanisms

Efavirenz is an anti-HIV drug that presents relevant short- and long-term central nervous system adverse reactions. Its main metabolite (8-hydroxy-efavirenz) was demonstrated to be a more potent neurotoxin than efavirenz itself. This work was aimed to understand how efavirenz biotransformation to 8-hydroxy-efavirenz is related to its short- and long-term neuro-adverse reactions. To access those mechanisms, the expression and activity of Cyp2b enzymes as well as the thiolomic signature (low molecular weight thiols plus S-thiolated proteins) were longitudinally evaluated in the hepatic and brain tissues of rats exposed to efavirenz during 10 and 36days. Efavirenz and 8-hydroxy-efavirenz plasma concentrations were monitored at the same time points. Cyp2b induction had a delayed onset in liver (p<0.001), translating into increases in Cyp2b activity in liver and 8-hydroxy-efavirenz plasma concentration (p<0.001). Moreover, an increase in S-cysteinyl-glycinylated proteins (p<0.001) and in free low molecular weight thiols was also observed in liver. A distinct scenario was observed in hippocampus, which showed an underexpression of Cyp2b as well as a decrease in S-cysteinylated and S-glutathionylated proteins. Additionally, the observed changes in tissues were associated with a marked increase of S-glutathionylation in plasma. Our data suggest that the time course of efavirenz biotransformation results from different mechanisms for its short- and long-term neurotoxicity. The difference in the redox profile between liver and hippocampus might explain why, despite being mostly metabolized by the liver, this drug is neurotoxic. If translated to clinical practice, this evidence will have important implications in efavirenz short- and long-term neurotoxicity prevention and management.

MicroRNA-mediated regulation of glutathione and methionine metabolism and its relevance for liver disease

The discovery of the microRNA (miRNA) family of small RNAs as fundamental regulators of post-transcriptional gene expression has fostered research on their importance in every area of biology and clinical medicine. In the particular area of liver metabolism and disease, miRNAs are gaining increasing importance. By focusing on two fundamental hepatic biosynthetic pathways, glutathione and methionine, we review recent advances on the comprehension of the role of miRNAs in liver pathophysiology and more specifically of models of hepatic cholestasis/fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma.

N-acetylcysteine inhibits kinase phosphorylation during 3T3-L1 adipocyte differentiation

OBJECTIVES

Reports investigating the effects of antioxidants on obesity have provided contradictory results. We have previously demonstrated that treatment with the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) inhibits cellular triglyceride (Tg) accumulation as well as total cellular monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) expression in 3T3-L1 mature adipocytes (Calzadilla et al., Redox Rep. 2013;210-218). Here we analyzed the role of NAC on adipogenic differentiation pathway.

METHODS

Assays were conducted using 3T3-L1 preadipocytes (undifferentiated cells: CC), which are capable of differentiating into mature adipocytes (differentiated cells: DC). We studied the effects of different doses of NAC (0.01 or 1 mM) on DC, to evaluate cellular expression of phospho-JNK½ (pJNK½), phospho-ERK½ (pERK½) and, mitochondrial expression of citrate synthase, fumarate hydratase and MAOA.

RESULTS

Following the differentiation of preadipocytes, an increase in the expression levels of pJNK½ and pERK½ was observed, together with mitotic clonal expansion (MCE). We found that both doses of NAC decreased the expression of pJNK½ and pERK½. Consistent with these results, NAC significantly inhibited MCE and modified the expression of different mitochondrial proteins.

DISCUSSION

Our results suggested that NAC could inhibit Tg and mitochondrial protein expression by preventing both MCE and kinase phosphorylation.

Detoxifying Enzymes at the Cross-Roads of Inflammation, Oxidative Stress, and Drug Hypersensitivity: Role of Glutathione Transferase P1-1 and Aldose Reductase

Phase I and II enzymes are involved in the metabolism of endogenous reactive compounds as well as xenobiotics, including toxicants and drugs. Genotyping studies have established several drug metabolizing enzymes as markers for risk of drug hypersensitivity. However, other candidates are emerging that are involved in drug metabolism but also in the generation of danger or costimulatory signals. Enzymes such as aldo-keto reductases (AKR) and glutathione transferases (GST) metabolize prostaglandins and reactive aldehydes with proinflammatory activity, as well as drugs and/or their reactive metabolites. In addition, their metabolic activity can have important consequences for the cellular redox status, and impacts the inflammatory response as well as the balance of inflammatory mediators, which can modulate epigenetic factors and cooperate or interfere with drug-adduct formation. These enzymes are, in turn, targets for covalent modification and regulation by oxidative stress, inflammatory mediators, and drugs. Therefore, they constitute a platform for a complex set of interactions involving drug metabolism, protein haptenation, modulation of the inflammatory response, and/or generation of danger signals with implications in drug hypersensitivity reactions. Moreover, increasing evidence supports their involvement in allergic processes. Here, we will focus on GSTP1-1 and aldose reductase (AKR1B1) and provide a perspective for their involvement in drug hypersensitivity.

2-Oxoglutarate dehydrogenase is a more significant source of O2(·-)/H2O2 than pyruvate dehydrogenase in cardiac and liver tissue

Pyruvate dehydrogenase (Pdh) and 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase (Ogdh) are vital for Krebs cycle metabolism and sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS). O2(·-)/H2O2 formation by Pdh and Ogdh from porcine heart were compared when operating under forward or reverse electron transfer conditions. Comparisons were also conducted with liver and cardiac mitochondria. During reverse electron transfer (RET) from NADH, purified Ogdh generated ~3-3.5× more O2(·-)/H2O2 in comparison to Pdh when metabolizing 0.5-10µM NADH. Under forward electron transfer (FET) conditions Ogdh generated ~2-4× more O2(·-)/H2O2 than Pdh. In both liver and cardiac mitochondria, Ogdh displayed significantly higher rates of ROS formation when compared to Pdh. Ogdh was also a significant source of ROS in liver mitochondria metabolizing 50µM and 500µM pyruvate or succinate. Finally, we also observed that DTT directly stimulated O2(·-)/H2O2 formation by purified Pdh and Ogdh and in cardiac or liver mitochondria in the absence of substrates and cofactors. Taken together, Ogdh is a more potent source of ROS than Pdh in liver and cardiac tissue. Ogdh is also an important ROS generator regardless of whether pyruvate or succinate serve as the sole source of carbon. Our observations provide insight into the ROS generating capacity of either complex in cardiac and liver tissue. The evidence presented herein also indicates DTT, a reductant that is routinely added to biological samples, should be avoided when assessing mitochondrial O2(·-)/H2O2 production.

Methylmercury alters glutathione homeostasis by inhibiting glutaredoxin 1 and enhancing glutathione biosynthesis in cultured human astrocytoma cells

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a neurotoxin that binds strongly to thiol residues on protein and low molecular weight molecules like reduced glutathione (GSH). The mechanism of its effects on GSH homeostasis particularly at environmentally relevant low doses is not fully known. We hypothesized that exposure to MeHg would lead to a depletion of reduced glutathione (GSH) and an accumulation of glutathione disulfide (GSSG) leading to alterations in S-glutathionylation of proteins. Our results showed exposure to low concentrations of MeHg (1μM) did not significantly alter GSH levels but increased GSSG levels by ∼12-fold. This effect was associated with a significant increase in total cellular glutathione content and a decrease in GSH/GSSG. Immunoblot analyses revealed that proteins involved in glutathione synthesis were upregulated accounting for the increase in cellular glutathione. This was associated an increase in cellular Nrf2 protein levels which is required to induce the expression of antioxidant genes in response to cellular stress. Intriguingly, we noted that a key enzyme involved in reversing protein S-glutathionylation and maintaining glutathione homeostasis, glutaredoxin-1 (Grx1), was inhibited by ∼50%. MeHg treatment also increased the S-glutathionylation of a high molecular weight protein. This observation is consistent with the inhibition of Grx1 and elevated H2O2 production however; contrary to our original hypothesis we found few S-glutathionylated proteins in the astrocytoma cells. Collectively, MeHg affects multiple arms of glutathione homeostasis ranging from pool management to protein S-glutathionylation and Grx1 activity.

Induction of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production by GSH mediated S-glutathionylation of 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase

2-Oxoglutarate dehydrogenase (Ogdh) is an important mitochondria redox sensor that can undergo S-glutathionylation following an increase in H₂O₂ levels. Although S-glutathionylation is required to protect Ogdh from irreversible oxidation while simultaneously modulating its activity it remains unknown if glutathione can also modulate reactive oxygen species (ROS) production by the complex. We report that reduced (GSH) and oxidized (GSSG) glutathione control O2∙-/H₂O₂ formation by Ogdh through protein S-glutathionylation reactions. GSSG (1 mM) induced a modest decrease in Ogdh activity which was associated with a significant decrease in O2∙-/H₂O₂ formation. GSH had the opposite effect, amplifying O2∙-/H₂O₂ formation by Ogdh. Incubation of purified Ogdh in 2.5 mM GSH led to significant increase in O2∙-/H₂O₂ formation which also lowered NADH production. Inclusion of enzymatically active glutaredoxin-2 (Grx2) in reaction mixtures reversed the GSH-mediated amplification of O2∙-/H₂O₂ formation. Similarly pre-incubation of permeabilized liver mitochondria from mouse depleted of GSH showed an approximately ~3.5-fold increase in Ogdh-mediated O2∙-/H₂O₂ production that was matched by a significant decrease in NADH formation which could be reversed by Grx2. Taken together, our results demonstrate GSH and GSSG modulate ROS production by Ogdh through S-glutathionylation of different subunits. This is also the first demonstration that GSH can work in the opposite direction in mitochondria-amplifying ROS formation instead of quenching it. We propose that this regulatory mechanism is required to modulate ROS emission from Ogdh in response to variations in glutathione redox buffering capacity.

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ROS formation by Ogdh is controlled by glutathione.

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GSH amplifies ROS production by Ogdh.

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Ogdh is S-glutathionylated by GSH.

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Grx2 deglutathionylates Ogdh.