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Holm R, Kuentz M, Ilie-Spiridon AR, Griffin BT. Lipid based formulations as supersaturating oral delivery systems: From current to future industrial applications. Eur J Pharm Sci 2023; 189:106556. [PMID: 37543063 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2023.106556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Revised: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/07/2023]
Abstract
Lipid-based formulations, in particular supersaturated lipid-based formulations, are important delivery approaches when formulating challenging compounds, as especially low water-soluble compounds profit from delivery in a pre-dissolved state. In this article, the classification of lipid-based formulation is described, followed by a detailed discussion of different supersaturated lipid-based formulations and the recent advances reported in the literature. The supersaturated lipid-based formulations discussed include both the in situ forming supersaturated systems as well as the thermally induced supersaturated lipid-based formulations. The in situ forming drug supersaturation by lipid-based formulations has been widely employed and numerous clinically available products are on the market. There are some scientific gaps in the field, but in general there is a good understanding of the mechanisms driving the success of these systems. For thermally induced supersaturation, the technology is not yet fully understood and developed, hence more research is required in this field to explore the formulations beyond preclinical studies and initial clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- René Holm
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Southern Denmark, Denmark.
| | - Martin Kuentz
- University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology, Hofackerstr. 30, CH-4132 Muttenz, Switzerland
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Mondal S, Sirvi A, Jadhav K, Sangamwar AT. Supersaturating lipid-based solid dispersion of atazanavir provides enhanced solubilization and supersaturation in the digestive aqueous phase. Int J Pharm 2023; 638:122919. [PMID: 37011828 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2023.122919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/04/2023]
Abstract
Understanding and controlling the drug solubilization in digestive environment is of great importance in the design of lipid based solid dispersion (LBSD) for oral delivery of poorly aqueous soluble drugs. In the current study we determined the extent of drug solubilization and supersaturation of supersaturating lipid based solid dispersion which is governed by formulation variables like drug payload, lipid composition, solid carrier properties and lipid to solid carrier ratio. Initially, the impact of lipid chain length and drug payload on drug solubilization in lipid preconcentrate and dispersibility were evaluated to design liquid LbF of the model antiretroviral drug, atazanavir. The temperature induced supersaturation method enhanced the drug payload in medium chain triglyceride formulation at 60 °C. Further, the selected liquid supersaturated LbF was transformed into solid state LbF by employing different solid carriers including silica (Neusilin® US2 and Aerosil® 200), clay (Montmorillonite and Bentonite) and polymer (HPMC-AS and Kollidon® CL-M). The fabricated LBSDs were evaluated for solid state characterization to identify the physical nature of drug. In vitro digestion studies were conducted using pH-stat lipolysis method to assess the supersaturation propensity in aqueous digestive phase. Results revealed that LBSDs with silica and polymer carriers showed maximum drug solubilization throughout experiment compared to liquid LbF. The ionic interaction between drug-clay particles significantly reduced the ATZ partitioning from clay based LBSDs. LBSDs with dual purpose solid carrier like HPMC-AS and Neusilin® US2 offers the potential to improve drug solubilization of ATZ for physiologically relevant time. Lastly, we conclude that evaluation of formulation variables is crucial to achieve optimal performance of supersaturating LBSD.
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Møller A, Schultz HB, Meola TR, Joyce P, Müllertz A, Prestidge CA. The Influence of Blonanserin Supersaturation in Liquid and Silica Stabilised Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery Systems on In Vitro Solubilisation. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15010284. [PMID: 36678919 PMCID: PMC9864080 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15010284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Revised: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Reformulating poorly water-soluble drugs as supersaturated lipid-based formulations achieves higher drug loading and potentially improves solubilisation and bioavailability. However, for the weak base blonanserin, silica solidified supersaturated lipid-based formulations have demonstrated reduced in vitro solubilisation compared to their liquid-state counterparts. Therefore, this study aimed to understand the influence of supersaturated drug load on blonanserin solubilisation from liquid and silica solidified supersaturated self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (super-SNEDDS) during in vitro lipolysis. Stable liquid super-SNEDDS with varying drug loads (90-300% of the equilibrium solubility) were solidified by imbibition into porous silica microparticles (1:1 lipid: silica ratio). In vitro lipolysis revealed greater blonanserin solubilisation from liquid super-SNEDDS compared to solid at equivalent drug saturation levels, owing to strong silica-BLON/lipid interactions, evidenced by a significant decrease in blonanserin solubilisation upon addition of silica to a digesting liquid super-SNEDDS. An increase in solid super-SNEDDS drug loading led to increased solubilisation, owing to the increased drug:silica and drug:lipid ratios. Solidifying SNEDDS with silica enables the fabrication of powdered formulations with higher blonanserin loading and greater stability than liquid super-SNEDDS, however at the expense of drug solubilisation. These competing parameters need careful consideration in designing optimal super-SNEDDS for pre-clinical and clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amalie Møller
- UniSA Clinical & Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Future Industries Institute, UniSA STEM, Mawson Lakes Campus, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA 5095, Australia
| | - Hayley B. Schultz
- UniSA Clinical & Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Tahlia R. Meola
- UniSA Clinical & Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Paul Joyce
- UniSA Clinical & Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Anette Müllertz
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Bioneer:FARMA, Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Clive A. Prestidge
- UniSA Clinical & Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +61-8-830-22438
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Almasri R, Schultz HB, Møller A, Bremmell KE, Garcia-Bennett A, Joyce P, Prestidge CA. Role of Silica Intrawall Microporosity on Abiraterone Acetate Solubilization and In Vivo Oral Absorption. Mol Pharm 2022; 19:1091-1103. [PMID: 35238208 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.1c00781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
SBA-15 mesoporous silica (MPS) has been widely used in oral drug delivery; however, it has not been utilized for solidifying lipid-based formulations, and the impact of their characteristic intrawall microporosity remains largely unexplored. Here, we derive the impact of the MPS microporosity on the in vitro solubilization and in vivo oral pharmacokinetics of the prostate cancer drug abiraterone acetate (AbA) when coencapsulated along with medium chain lipids into the pores. AbA in lipid (at 80% equilibrium solubility) was imbibed within a range of MPS particles (with comparable morphology and mesoporous structure but contrasting microporosity ranging from 0-247 m2/g), and their solid-state properties were characterized. Drug solubilization studies during in vitro lipolysis revealed that microporosity was the key factor in facilitating AbA solubilization by increasing the surface area available for drug-lipid diffusion. Interestingly, microporosity hindered hydrolysis of AbA to its active metabolite, abiraterone (Ab), under simulated intestinal conditions. This unique relationship between microporosity and AbA/Ab aqueous solubilization behavior was hypothesized to have significant implications on the subsequent bioavailability of the active metabolite. In vivo oral pharmacokinetics studies in male Sprague-Dawley rats revealed that MPS with moderate microporosity attained the highest relative bioavailability, while poor in vitro-in vivo correlations (IVIVC) existed between in vitro drug solubilization during lipolysis and in vivo AUC. Despite this, a reasonable IVIVC was established between the in vitro solubilization and in vivo Cmax, providing evidence for an association between silica microporosity and oral drug absorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruba Almasri
- UniSA Clinical & Health Science, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia
| | - Hayley B Schultz
- UniSA Clinical & Health Science, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia
| | - Amalie Møller
- UniSA Clinical & Health Science, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia.,Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kristen E Bremmell
- UniSA Clinical & Health Science, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia
| | | | - Paul Joyce
- UniSA Clinical & Health Science, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia
| | - Clive A Prestidge
- UniSA Clinical & Health Science, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia
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Lamsen MRL, Wang T, D'Souza D, Dia V, Chen G, Zhong Q. Encapsulation of vitamin D 3 in gum arabic to enhance bioavailability and stability for beverage applications. J Food Sci 2020; 85:2368-2379. [PMID: 32691454 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.15340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Revised: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Delivery of vitamin D3 (VD3 ) in foods should exhibit desirable physicochemical characteristics and improves absorption. In this study, gum arabic (GA) was investigated as a VD3 carrier to encapsulate VD3 . VD3 dissolved in 5 mL ethanol corresponding to 0.3 to 6.0% mass of GA, was blended in 5.0% w/v GA solution, followed by freeze drying. The encapsulation efficiency decreased while loading capacity increased with an increased amount of VD3 . At the highest VD3 level, the loading capacity (3.47%) was the highest, and the encapsulation efficiency (61.24%) was satisfactory, and the treatment was further studied. The magnitude of negative zeta-potential increased from 3.1 to 31.0 mV at pH 2.0 to 7.4. During the 100-day storage at 3 °C of capsules reconstituted at pH 2.0 to 7.4, the hydrodynamic diameter decreased at all pH conditions, most evident for reduction to 81.3 nm at pH 7.4, and no precipitation was observed, indicating the significance of steric repulsion on capsule stability. Bioaccessibility of VD3 in capsules (95.76%) was significantly higher than the nonencapsulated VD3 (68.98%). The in vivo pharmacokinetic study in Sprague-Dawley rats after a single-dose of 300 µg VD3 showed the area-under-curve of serum 25(OHD) level in 48 hr of the encapsulation treatment was 4.32-fold of the nonencapsulated VD3 and more than twice higher than the VD3 -GA physical mixture. During 2-week supplementation of 60 µg VD3 /d, rats receiving capsules or physical mixture had 25(OH)D levels of at least 81 ng/mL higher than that of the nonencapsulated VD3 group. The studied encapsulation system holds great potential as a value-added ingredient to supplement VD3 in beverages with a wide pH range. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The findings of this study demonstrated the improved dispersion stability and absorption of vitamin D3 after encapsulation in gum arabic. The capsules exhibited good dispersion stability across a pH range between 2.0 and 7.4, showing potential application in beverages. Furthermore, the enhanced absorption of VD3 after encapsulation highlights the nutritional benefits of the studied encapsulation system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Ross L Lamsen
- Department of Food Science, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, U.S.A
| | - Tiannan Wang
- Department of Nutrition, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, U.S.A
| | - Doris D'Souza
- Department of Food Science, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, U.S.A
| | - Vermont Dia
- Department of Food Science, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, U.S.A
| | - Guoxun Chen
- Department of Nutrition, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, U.S.A
| | - Qixin Zhong
- Department of Food Science, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, U.S.A
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Almasri R, Joyce P, Schultz HB, Thomas N, Bremmell KE, Prestidge CA. Porous Nanostructure, Lipid Composition, and Degree of Drug Supersaturation Modulate In Vitro Fenofibrate Solubilization in Silica-Lipid Hybrids. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12070687. [PMID: 32708197 PMCID: PMC7408050 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12070687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The unique nanostructured matrix obtained by silica-lipid hybrids (SLHs) is well known to improve the dissolution, absorption, and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs (PWSDs). The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of: (i) drug load: 3–22.7% w/w, (ii) lipid type: medium-chain triglyceride (Captex 300) and mono and diester of caprylic acid (Capmul PG8), and (iii) silica nanostructure: spray dried fumed silica (FS) and mesoporous silica (MPS), on the in vitro dissolution, solubilization, and solid-state stability of the model drug fenofibrate (FEN). Greater FEN crystallinity was detected at higher drug loads and within the MPS formulations. Furthermore, an increased rate and extent of dissolution was achieved by FS formulations when compared to crystalline FEN (5–10-fold), a commercial product; APO-fenofibrate (2.4–4-fold) and corresponding MPS formulations (2–4-fold). Precipitation of FEN during in vitro lipolysis restricted data interpretation, however a synergistic effect between MPS and Captex 300 in enhancing FEN aqueous solubilization was attained. It was concluded that a balance between in vitro performance and drug loading is key, and the optimum drug load was determined to be between 7–16% w/w, which corresponds to (200–400% equilibrium solubility in lipid Seq). This study provides valuable insight into the impact of key characteristics of SLHs, in constructing optimized solid-state lipid-based formulations for the oral delivery of PWSDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruba Almasri
- UniSA Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, Australia; (R.A.); (P.J.); (H.B.S.); (N.T.); (K.E.B.)
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, Australia
| | - Paul Joyce
- UniSA Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, Australia; (R.A.); (P.J.); (H.B.S.); (N.T.); (K.E.B.)
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, Australia
| | - Hayley B. Schultz
- UniSA Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, Australia; (R.A.); (P.J.); (H.B.S.); (N.T.); (K.E.B.)
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, Australia
| | - Nicky Thomas
- UniSA Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, Australia; (R.A.); (P.J.); (H.B.S.); (N.T.); (K.E.B.)
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, Australia
| | - Kristen E. Bremmell
- UniSA Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, Australia; (R.A.); (P.J.); (H.B.S.); (N.T.); (K.E.B.)
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, Australia
| | - Clive A. Prestidge
- UniSA Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, Australia; (R.A.); (P.J.); (H.B.S.); (N.T.); (K.E.B.)
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Adelaide 5000, Australia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +61-8830-22438
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Schultz HB, Wignall AD, Thomas N, Prestidge CA. Enhancement of abiraterone acetate oral bioavailability by supersaturated-silica lipid hybrids. Int J Pharm 2020; 582:119264. [PMID: 32278053 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2020.119264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Abiraterone acetate (AbA) has an oral bioavailability of <10% due to its poor water solubility. Here we investigate the performance of silica-lipid hybrids (SLH) and supersaturated SLH (super-SLH) in improving oral bioavailability of AbA. Specifically, we investigate the influence of lipid type and AbA saturation level of the equilibrium solubility in the lipid (Seq), and explore in vitro-in vivo correlation (IVIVC). An oral pharmacokinetic study was conducted in fasted Sprague-Dawley rats. Suspensions of the formulations were administered via oral gavage at an AbA dose of 25 mg/kg. Plasma samples were collected and analyzed for drug content. SLH with a saturation level of 90% Seq enhanced the oral bioavailability of unformulated AbA by 31-fold, and super-SLH with saturation levels of 150, 200 and 250% Seq, enhanced the bioavailability by 11, 10 and 7-fold, respectively. In comparison with the commercial product Zytiga, SLH (90% Seq) increased the oral bioavailability 1.43-fold whereas super-SLH showed no improvement. A reasonable IVIVC existed between the performance of unformulated AbA, SLH and super-SLH, in the in vitro lipolysis and in vivo oral pharmacokinetic studies. SLH and super-SLH significantly enhanced the oral bioavailability of AbA. Additionally, supersaturation of SLH improved drug loading but did not correlate with enhanced AbA bioavailability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayley B Schultz
- University of South Australia Cancer Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Campus, Mawson Lakes 5095, Australia
| | - Anthony D Wignall
- University of South Australia Cancer Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia
| | - Nicky Thomas
- University of South Australia Cancer Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Campus, Mawson Lakes 5095, Australia
| | - Clive A Prestidge
- University of South Australia Cancer Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Campus, Mawson Lakes 5095, Australia.
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Supersaturated-Silica Lipid Hybrids Improve in Vitro Solubilization of Abiraterone Acetate. Pharm Res 2020; 37:77. [PMID: 32236761 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-020-02795-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Abiraterone acetate (AbA) is a poorly water-soluble drug with an oral bioavailability of <10% and a significant pharmaceutical food effect. We aimed to develop a more efficient oral solid-state lipid-based formulation for AbA using a supersaturated silica-lipid hybrid (super-SLH) approach to achieve high drug loading, improve in vitro solubilization and mitigate the food effect, while gaining a mechanistic insight into how super-SLH are digested and release drug. METHODS The influence of super-SLH saturation level and lipid type on the physicochemical properties and in vitro solubilization during lipolysis of the formulations was investigated and compared to the commercial product, Zytiga. RESULTS Super-SLH achieved significantly greater levels of AbA solubilization compared to Zytiga. Solubilization was influenced by the AbA saturation level, which determined the solid state of AbA and the relative amount of lipid, and the lipid utilized, which determined its degree of digestion and the affinity of the lipid and digestion products to the silica. A fine balance existed between achieving high drug loads using supersaturation and improving performance using the lipid-based formulation approach. The non-supersaturated SLH prepared with Capmul PG8 mitigated the 3-fold in vitro food effect. CONCLUSION SLH and super-SLH improve in vitro solubilization of AbA, remove the food effect and demonstrate potential to improve oral bioavailability in vivo. Graphical Abstract Abiraterone acetate was formulated as silica-lipid hybrids and demonstrated enhanced in vitro solubilization in comparison to pure abiraterone acetate and commercial product, Zytiga.
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Schultz HB, Meola TR, Thomas N, Prestidge CA. Oral formulation strategies to improve the bioavailability and mitigate the food effect of abiraterone acetate. Int J Pharm 2020; 577:119069. [PMID: 31981706 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2020.119069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Abiraterone acetate, marketed as Zytiga®, is an antiandrogen medication used in the treatment of prostate cancer. Abiraterone acetate is a BCS Class IV compound associated with several oral delivery challenges. Its low solubility and high lipophilicity lead to poor oral bioavailability (<10%) and a dramatic positive food effect (5-10-fold). Hence, a large dose of abiraterone acetate (1000 mg per day) is prescribed to patients who must fast for at least 1 h before and 2 h after administration. The recent expiry of Zytiga®s' patent has led to the emergence of publications describing improved oral formulation strategies for abiraterone acetate. This review aims to discuss the characteristics of abiraterone acetate that lead to its unfavorable oral delivery, examine the oral formulation strategies that have been applied, and to describe potential alternative oral formulation strategies that have been used for other BCS Class IV drugs, to determine the most valuable strategies to develop novel and improved alternatives to the current commercial product. Specific emphasis of this review is placed on enabling oral formulation strategies that can improve solubilization and bioavailability, reduce the clinical dose and remove the pharmaceutical food effect to ultimately provide prostate cancer patients with a more efficient formulation with greater patient compliance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayley B Schultz
- University of South Australia Cancer Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Campus, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095, Australia.
| | - Tahlia R Meola
- University of South Australia Cancer Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Campus, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095, Australia.
| | - Nicky Thomas
- University of South Australia Cancer Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Campus, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095, Australia.
| | - Clive A Prestidge
- University of South Australia Cancer Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Campus, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095, Australia.
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