Inhibition of the Na+/dicarboxylate cotransporter by anthranilic acid derivatives

Cryo-EM structures of the human NaS1 and NaDC1 transporters revealed the elevator transport and allosteric regulation mechanism

The solute carrier 13 (SLC13) family comprises electrogenic sodium ion-coupled anion cotransporters, segregating into sodium ion-sulfate cotransporters (NaSs) and sodium ion-di- and-tricarboxylate cotransporters (NaDCs). NaS1 and NaDC1 regulate sulfate homeostasis and oxidative metabolism, respectively. NaS1 deficiency affects murine growth and fertility, while NaDC1 affects urinary citrate and calcium nephrolithiasis. Despite their importance, the mechanisms of substrate recognition and transport remain insufficiently characterized. In this study, we determined the cryo-electron microscopy structures of human NaS1, capturing inward-facing and combined inward-facing/outward-facing conformations within a dimer both in apo and sulfate-bound states. In addition, we elucidated NaDC1's outward-facing conformation, encompassing apo, citrate-bound, and N-(p-amylcinnamoyl) anthranilic acid (ACA) inhibitor-bound states. Structural scrutiny illuminates a detailed elevator mechanism driving conformational changes. Notably, the ACA inhibitor unexpectedly binds primarily anchored by transmembrane 2 (TM2), Loop 10, TM11, and TM6a proximate to the cytosolic membrane. Our findings provide crucial insights into SLC13 transport mechanisms, paving the way for future drug design.

Role of plasma membrane dicarboxylate transporters in the uptake and toxicity of diglycolic acid, a metabolite of diethylene glycol, in human proximal tubule cells

Diethylene glycol (DEG) mass poisonings have resulted from ingestion of pharmaceuticals mistakenly adulterated with DEG, typically leading to proximal tubular necrosis and acute kidney injury. The metabolite, diglycolic acid (DGA) accumulates greatly in kidney tissue and its direct administration results in toxicity identical to that in DEG-treated rats. DGA is a dicarboxylic acid, similar in structure to metabolites like succinate. These studies have assessed the mechanism for cellular accumulation of DGA, specifically whether DGA is taken into primary cultures of human proximal tubule (HPT) cells via sodium dicarboxylate transporters (NaDC-1 or NaDC-3) like those responsible for succinate uptake. When HPT cells were cultured on membrane inserts, sodium dependent succinate uptake was observed from both apical and basolateral directions. Pretreatment with the NaDC-1 inhibitor N-(p-amylcinnamoyl)anthranilic acid (ACA) markedly reduced apical uptakes of both succinate and DGA. Basolateral uptake of both succinate and DGA were decreased similarly following combined treatment with ACA and the NaDC-3 inhibitor 2,3-dimethylsuccinate. When the cells were pre-treated with siRNA to knockdown NaDC-1 function, apical uptake of succinate and toxicity of apically applied DGA were reduced, while the reduction in basolateral succinate uptake and basolateral DGA toxicity was marginal with NaDC-3 knockdown. DGA reduced apical uptake of succinate, but not basolateral uptake. This study confirmed that primary HPT cells retain sodium dicarboxylate transport functionality and that DGA was taken up by these transporters. This study identified NaDC-1 as a likely and NaDC-3 as a possible molecular target to reduce uptake of this toxic metabolite by the kidney.

A Novel and Cross-Species Active Mammalian INDY (NaCT) Inhibitor Ameliorates Hepatic Steatosis in Mice with Diet-Induced Obesity

Mammalian INDY (mINDY, NaCT, gene symbol SLC13A5) is a potential target for the treatment of metabolically associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD). This study evaluated the effects of a selective, cross-species active, non-competitive, non-substrate-like inhibitor of NaCT. First, the small molecule inhibitor ETG-5773 was evaluated for citrate and succinate uptake and fatty acid synthesis in cell lines expressing both human NaCT and mouse Nact. Once its suitability was established, the inhibitor was evaluated in a diet-induced obesity (DIO) mouse model. DIO mice treated with 15 mg/kg compound ETG-5773 twice daily for 28 days had reduced body weight, fasting blood glucose, and insulin, and improved glucose tolerance. Liver triglycerides were significantly reduced, and body composition was improved by reducing fat mass, supported by a significant reduction in the expression of genes for lipogenesis such as SREBF1 and SCD1. Most of these effects were also evident after a seven-day treatment with the same dose. Further mechanistic investigation in the seven-day study showed increased plasma β-hydroxybutyrate and activated hepatic adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), reflecting findings from Indy (−/−) knockout mice. These results suggest that the inhibitor ETG-5773 blocked citrate uptake mediated by mouse and human NaCT to reduce liver steatosis and body fat and improve glucose regulation, proving the concept of NaCT inhibition as a future liver treatment for MAFLD.

Citric Acid: A Multifunctional Pharmaceutical Excipient

Citric acid, a tricarboxylic acid, has found wide application in the chemical and pharmaceutical industry due to its biocompatibility, versatility, and green, environmentally friendly chemistry. This review emphasizes the pharmaceutical uses of citric acid as a strategic ingredient in drug formulation while focusing on the impact of its physicochemical properties. The functionality of citric acid is due to its three carboxylic groups and one hydroxyl group. These allow it to be used in many ways, including its ability to be used as a crosslinker to form biodegradable polymers and as a co-former in co-amorphous and co-crystal applications. This paper also analyzes the effect of citric acid in physiological processes and how this effect can be used to enhance the attributes of pharmaceutical preparations, as well as providing a critical discussion on the issues that may arise out of the presence of citric acid in formulations.

A tunable anthranilate-inducible gene expression system for Pseudomonas species

Abstract

Pseudomonads are among the most common bacteria in soils, limnic ecosystems, and human, animal, or plant host environments, including intensively studied species such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, P. putida, or P. fluorescens. Various gene expression systems are established for some species, but there is still a need for a simple system that is suitable for a wide range of pseudomonads and that can be used for physiological applications, i.e., with a tuning capacity at lower expression levels. Here, we report the establishment of the anthranilate-dependent P_antA promoter for tunable gene expression in pseudomonads. During studies on P. fluorescens, we constructed an anthranilate-inducible AntR/P_antA-based expression system, named pUCP20-ANT, and used GFP as reporter to analyze gene expression. This system was compared with the rhamnose-inducible RhaSR/P_rhaB-based expression system in an otherwise identical vector background. While the rhamnose-inducible system did not respond to lower inducer concentrations and always reached high levels over time when induced, expression levels of the pUCP20-ANT system could be adjusted to a range of distinct lower or higher levels by variation of anthranilate concentrations in the medium. Importantly, the anthranilate-inducible expression system worked also in strains of P. aeruginosa and P. putida and therefore will be most likely useful for physiological and biotechnological purposes in a wide range of pseudomonads.

Key points

• We established an anthranilate-inducible gene expression system for pseudomonads.

• This system permits tuning of gene expression in a wide range of pseudomonads.

• It will be very useful for physiological and biotechnological applications.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00253-020-11034-8.

Solute Carrier Transporters as Potential Targets for the Treatment of Metabolic Disease

The solute carrier (SLC) superfamily comprises more than 400 transport proteins mediating the influx and efflux of substances such as ions, nucleotides, and sugars across biological membranes. Over 80 SLC transporters have been linked to human diseases, including obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2D). This observation highlights the importance of SLCs for human (patho)physiology. Yet, only a small number of SLC proteins are validated drug targets. The most recent drug class approved for the treatment of T2D targets sodium-glucose cotransporter 2, product of the SLC5A2 gene. There is great interest in identifying other SLC transporters as potential targets for the treatment of metabolic diseases. Finding better treatments will prove essential in future years, given the enormous personal and socioeconomic burden posed by more than 500 million patients with T2D by 2040 worldwide. In this review, we summarize the evidence for SLC transporters as target structures in metabolic disease. To this end, we identified SLC13A5/sodium-coupled citrate transporter, and recent proof-of-concept studies confirm its therapeutic potential in T2D and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Further SLC transporters were linked in multiple genome-wide association studies to T2D or related metabolic disorders. In addition to presenting better-characterized potential therapeutic targets, we discuss the likely unnoticed link between other SLC transporters and metabolic disease. Recognition of their potential may promote research on these proteins for future medical management of human metabolic diseases such as obesity, fatty liver disease, and T2D. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Given the fact that the prevalence of human metabolic diseases such as obesity and type 2 diabetes has dramatically risen, pharmacological intervention will be a key future approach to managing their burden and reducing mortality. In this review, we present the evidence for solute carrier (SLC) genes associated with human metabolic diseases and discuss the potential of SLC transporters as therapeutic target structures.

Suppression of antitumor T cell immunity by the oncometabolite (R)-2-hydroxyglutarate

The oncometabolite (R)-2-hydroxyglutarate (R-2-HG) produced by isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) mutations promotes gliomagenesis via DNA and histone methylation. Here, we identify an additional activity of R-2-HG: tumor cell-derived R-2-HG is taken up by T cells where it induces a perturbation of nuclear factor of activated T cells transcriptional activity and polyamine biosynthesis, resulting in suppression of T cell activity. IDH1-mutant gliomas display reduced T cell abundance and altered calcium signaling. Antitumor immunity to experimental syngeneic IDH1-mutant tumors induced by IDH1-specific vaccine or checkpoint inhibition is improved by inhibition of the neomorphic enzymatic function of mutant IDH1. These data attribute a novel, non-tumor cell-autonomous role to an oncometabolite in shaping the tumor immune microenvironment.

Cytosolic Phospholipase A2α Promotes Pulmonary Inflammation and Systemic Disease during Streptococcus pneumoniae Infection

Pulmonary infection by Streptococcus pneumoniae is characterized by a robust alveolar infiltration of neutrophils (polymorphonuclear cells [PMNs]) that can promote systemic spread of the infection if not resolved. We previously showed that 12-lipoxygenase (12-LOX), which is required to generate the PMN chemoattractant hepoxilin A₃ (HXA₃) from arachidonic acid (AA), promotes acute pulmonary inflammation and systemic infection after lung challenge with S. pneumoniae As phospholipase A₂ (PLA₂) promotes the release of AA, we investigated the role of PLA₂ in local and systemic disease during S. pneumoniae infection. The group IVA cytosolic isoform of PLA₂ (cPLA₂α) was activated upon S. pneumoniae infection of cultured lung epithelial cells and was critical for AA release from membrane phospholipids. Pharmacological inhibition of this enzyme blocked S. pneumoniae-induced PMN transepithelial migration in vitro Genetic ablation of the cPLA₂ isoform cPLA₂α dramatically reduced lung inflammation in mice upon high-dose pulmonary challenge with S. pneumoniae The cPLA₂α-deficient mice also suffered no bacteremia and survived a pulmonary challenge that was lethal to wild-type mice. Our data suggest that cPLA₂α plays a crucial role in eliciting pulmonary inflammation during pneumococcal infection and is required for lethal systemic infection following S. pneumoniae lung challenge.

Discovery and Characterization of Novel GPR39 Agonists Allosterically Modulated by Zinc

In this study, we identified two previously described kinase inhibitors-3-(4-chloro-2-fluorobenzyl)-2-methyl-N-(3-methyl-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)-8-(morpholinomethyl)imidazo[1,2-b]pyridazin-6-amine (LY2784544) and 1H-benzimidazole-4-carboxylic acid, 2-methyl-1-[[2-methyl-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]methyl]-6-(4-morpholinyl)- (GSK2636771)-as novel GPR39 agonists by unbiased small-molecule-based screening using a β-arrestin recruitment screening approach (PRESTO-Tango). We characterized the signaling of LY2784544 and GSK2636771 and compared their signaling patterns with a previously described "GPR39-selective" agonist N-[3-chloro-4-[[[2-(methylamino)-6-(2-pyridinyl)-4- pyrimidinyl]amino]methyl]phenyl]methanesulfonamide (GPR39-C3) at both canonical and noncanonical signaling pathways. Unexpectedly, all three compounds displayed probe-dependent and pathway-dependent allosteric modulation by concentrations of zinc reported to be physiologic. LY2784544 and GS2636771 at GPR39 in the presence of zinc were generally as potent or more potent than their reported activities against kinases in whole-cell assays. These findings reveal an unexpected role of zinc as an allosteric potentiator of small-molecule-induced activation of GPR39 and expand the list of potential kinase off-targets to include understudied G protein-coupled receptors.

Discovery and characterization of novel inhibitors of the sodium-coupled citrate transporter (NaCT or SLC13A5)

Citrate is a key regulatory metabolic intermediate as it facilitates the integration of the glycolysis and lipid synthesis pathways. Inhibition of hepatic extracellular citrate uptake, by blocking the sodium-coupled citrate transporter (NaCT or SLC13A5), has been suggested as a potential therapeutic approach to treat metabolic disorders. NaCT transports citrate from the blood into the cell coupled to the transport of sodium ions. The studies herein report the identification and characterization of a novel small dicarboxylate molecule (compound 2) capable of selectively and potently inhibiting citrate transport through NaCT, both in vitro and in vivo. Binding and transport experiments indicate that 2 specifically binds NaCT in a competitive and stereosensitive manner, and is recognized as a substrate for transport by NaCT. The favorable pharmacokinetic properties of 2 permitted in vivo experiments to evaluate the effect of inhibiting hepatic citrate uptake on metabolic endpoints.

Structure-Based Identification of Inhibitors for the SLC13 Family of Na(+)/Dicarboxylate Cotransporters

In mammals, citric acid cycle intermediates play a key role in regulating various metabolic processes, such as fatty acid synthesis and glycolysis. Members of the sodium-dependent SLC13 transporter family mediate the transport of di- and tricarboxylates into cells. SLC13 family members have been implicated in lifespan extension and resistance to high-fat diets; thus, they are emerging drug targets for aging and metabolic disorders. We previously characterized key structural determinants of substrate and cation binding for the human NaDC3/SLC13A3 transporter using a homology model. Here, we combine computational modeling and virtual screening with functional and biochemical testing, to identify nine previously unknown inhibitors for multiple members of the SLC13 family from human and mouse. Our results reveal previously unknown substrate selectivity determinants for the SLC13 family, including key residues that mediate ligand binding and transport, as well as promiscuous and specific SLC13 small molecule ligands. The newly discovered ligands can serve as chemical tools for further characterization of the SLC13 family or as lead molecules for the future development of potent inhibitors for the treatment of metabolic diseases and aging. Our results improve our understanding of the structural components that are important for substrate specificity in this physiologically important family as well as in other structurally related transport systems.

Sodium-coupled dicarboxylate and citrate transporters from the SLC13 family

The SLC13 family in humans and other mammals consists of sodium-coupled transporters for anionic substrates: three transporters for dicarboxylates/citrate and two transporters for sulfate. This review will focus on the di- and tricarboxylate transporters: NaDC1 (SLC13A2), NaDC3 (SLC13A3), and NaCT (SLC13A5). The substrates of these transporters are metabolic intermediates of the citric acid cycle, including citrate, succinate, and α-ketoglutarate, which can exert signaling effects through specific receptors or can affect metabolic enzymes directly. The SLC13 transporters are important for regulating plasma, urinary and tissue levels of these metabolites. NaDC1, primarily found on the apical membranes of renal proximal tubule and small intestinal cells, is involved in regulating urinary levels of citrate and plays a role in kidney stone development. NaDC3 has a wider tissue distribution and high substrate affinity compared with NaDC1. NaDC3 participates in drug and xenobiotic excretion through interactions with organic anion transporters. NaCT is primarily a citrate transporter located in the liver and brain, and its activity may regulate metabolic processes. The recent crystal structure of the Vibrio cholerae homolog, VcINDY, provides a new framework for understanding the mechanism of transport in this family. This review summarizes current knowledge of the structure, function, and regulation of the di- and tricarboxylate transporters of the SLC13 family.

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and other anthranilic acids inhibit the Na(+)/dicarboxylate symporter from Staphylococcus aureus

The Na(+)/dicarboxylate symporter from Staphylococcus aureus, named SdcS, is a member of the divalent anion sodium symporter (DASS) family that also includes the mammalian SLC13 Na(+)/dicarboxylate cotransporters, NaDC1 and NaCT. The mammalian members of the family are sensitive to inhibition by anthranilic acid derivatives such as N-(p-amylcinnamoyl)anthranilic acid (ACA), which act as slow inhibitors. This study shows that SdcS is inhibited by ACA as well as the fenamate nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, flufenamate and niflumate. The inhibition was rapid and reversible. The IC(50) for ACA was approximately 55 μM. Succinate kinetics by SdcS were sigmoidal, with a K(0.5) of 9 μM and a Hill coefficient of 1.5. Addition of ACA decreased the V(max) and increased the Hill coefficient without affecting the K(0.5), consistent with its activity as a negative modulator of SdcS activity. ACA inhibition was not correlated with the K(0.5) for succinate in SdcS mutants, and ACA did not affect the reactivity of the N108C mutant to the cysteine reagent, MTSET. We conclude that ACA and other anthranilic acid derivatives are effective allosteric inhibitors of SdcS. Furthermore, the mechanism of inhibition appears to be distinct from the mechanism observed in human NaDC1.

Diglycolic acid is the nephrotoxic metabolite in diethylene glycol poisoning inducing necrosis in human proximal tubule cells in vitro

Diethylene glycol (DEG), a solvent and chemical intermediate, can produce an acute toxic syndrome, the hallmark of which is acute renal failure due to cortical tubular degeneration and proximal tubular necrosis. DEG is metabolized to two primary metabolites, 2-hydroxyethoxyacetic acid (2-HEAA) and diglycolic acid (DGA), which are believed to be the proximate toxicants. The precise mechanism of toxicity has yet to be elucidated, so these studies were designed to determine which metabolite was responsible for the proximal tubule cell death. Human proximal tubule (HPT) cells in culture, obtained from normal cortical tissue and passaged 3-6 times, were incubated with increasing concentrations of DEG, 2-HEAA, or DGA separately and in combination for 48 h at pH 6 or 7.4, and various parameters of necrotic and apoptotic cell death were measured. DEG and 2-HEAA did not produce any cell death. DGA produced dose-dependent necrosis at concentrations above 25 mmol/l. DGA did not affect caspase-3 activity and increased annexin V staining only in propidium iodide-stained cells. Hence, DGA induced necrosis, not apoptosis, as corroborated by severe depletion of cellular adenosine triphosphate levels. DGA is structurally similar to citric acid cycle intermediates that are taken up by specific transporters in kidney cells. HPT cells, incubated with N-(p-amylcinnamoyl)anthranilic acid, a sodium dicarboxylate-1 transporter inhibitor showed significantly decreased cell death compared with DGA alone. These studies demonstrate that DGA is the toxic metabolite responsible for DEG-induced proximal tubular necrosis and suggest a possible transporter-mediated uptake of DGA leading to toxic accumulation and cellular dysfunction.

Induction of a novel cation current in cardiac ventricular myocytes by flufenamic acid and related drugs

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Interest in non-selective cation channels has increased recently following the discovery of transient receptor potential (TRP) proteins, which constitute many of these channels.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

We used the whole-cell patch-clamp technique on isolated ventricular myocytes to investigate the effect of flufenamic acid (FFA) and related drugs on membrane ion currents.

KEY RESULTS

With voltage-dependent and other ion channels inhibited, cells that were exposed to FFA, N-(p-amylcinnamoyl)anthranilic acid (ACA), ONO-RS-082 or niflumic acid (NFA) responded with an increase in currents. The induced current reversed at +38 mV, was unaffected by lowering extracellular Cl(-) concentration or by the removal of extracellular Ca(2+) and Mg(2+), and its inward but not outward component was suppressed in Na(+)-free extracellular conditions. The current was suppressed by Gd(3+) but was resistant to 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate (2-APB) and to amiloride. It could not be induced by the structurally related non-fenamate anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac, nor by the phospholipase-A(2) inhibitors bromoenol lactone and bromophenacyl bromide. Muscarinic or alpha-adrenoceptor activation or application of diacylglycerol failed to induce or modulate the current.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Flufenamic acid and related drugs activate a novel channel conductance, where Na(+) is likely to be the major charge carrier. The identity of the channel remains unclear, but it is unlikely to be due to Ca(2+)-activated (e.g. TRPM4/5), Mg(2+)-sensitive (e.g. TRPM7) or divalent cation-selective TRPs.