Salt bridge switching from Arg290/Glu167 to Arg290/ATP promotes the closed-to-open transition of the P2X2 receptor

P2X2 receptor subunit interfaces are missense variant hotspots where mutations tend to increase apparent ATP affinity

Background and Purpose

P2X receptors are trimeric ligand‐gated ion channels that open a cation‐selective pore in response to ATP binding to their large extracellular domain. The seven known P2X subtypes can assemble as homotrimeric or heterotrimeric complexes and contribute to numerous physiological functions, including nociception, inflammation and hearing. The overall structure of P2X receptors is well established, but little is known about the range and prevalence of human genetic variations and the functional implications of specific domains.

Experimental Approach

Here, we examine the impact of P2X2 receptor inter‐subunit interface missense variants identified in the human population or by structural predictions. We test both single and double mutants through electrophysiological and biochemical approaches.

Key Results

We demonstrate that predicted extracellular domain inter‐subunit interfaces display a higher‐than‐expected density of missense variations and that the majority of mutations that disrupt putative inter‐subunit interactions result in channels with higher apparent ATP affinity. Lastly, we show that double mutants at the subunit interface show significant energetic coupling, especially if located in close proximity.

Conclusion and Implications

We provide the first structural mapping of the mutational distribution across the human population in a ligand‐gated ion channel and show that the density of missense mutations is constrained between protein domains, indicating evolutionary selection at the domain level. Our data may indicate that, unlike other ligand‐gated ion channels, P2X2 receptors have evolved an intrinsically high threshold for activation, possibly to allow for additional modulation or as a cellular protection mechanism against overstimulation.

A conserved residue in the P2X4 receptor has a nonconserved function in ATP recognition

Highly conserved amino acids are generally anticipated to have similar functions across a protein superfamily, including that of the P2X ion channels, which are gated by extracellular ATP. However, whether and how these functions are conserved becomes less clear when neighboring amino acids are not conserved. Here, we investigate one such case, focused on the highly conserved residue from P2X4, E118 (rat P2X4 numbering, rP2X4), a P2X subtype associated with human neuropathic pain. When we compared the crystal structures of P2X4 with those of other P2X subtypes, including P2X3, P2X7, and AmP2X, we observed a slightly altered side-chain orientation of E118. We used protein chimeras, double-mutant cycle analysis, and molecular modeling to reveal that E118 forms specific contacts with amino acids in the "beak" region, which facilitates ATP binding to rP2X4. These contacts are not present in other subtypes because of sequence variance in the beak region, resulting in decoupling of this conserved residue from ATP recognition and/or channel gating of P2X receptors. Our study provides an example of a conserved residue with a specific role in functional proteins enabled by adjacent nonconserved residues. The unique role established by the E118-beak region contact provides a blueprint for the development of subtype-specific inhibitors of P2X4.

Molecular Modeling Applied to the Discovery of New Lead Compounds for P2 Receptors Based on Natural Sources

P2 receptors are a family of transmembrane receptors activated by nucleotides and nucleosides. Two classes have been described in mammals, P2X and P2Y, which are implicated in various diseases. Currently, only P2Y12 has medicines approved for clinical use as antiplatelet agents and natural products have emerged as a source of new drugs with action on P2 receptors due to the diversity of chemical structures. In drug discovery, in silico virtual screening (VS) techniques have become popular because they have numerous advantages, which include the evaluation of thousands of molecules against a target, usually proteins, faster and cheaper than classical high throughput screening (HTS). The number of studies using VS techniques has been growing in recent years and has led to the discovery of new molecules of natural origin with action on different P2X and P2Y receptors. Using different algorithms it is possible to obtain information on absorption, distribution, metabolism, toxicity, as well as predictions on biological activity and the lead-likeness of the selected hits. Selected biomolecules may then be tested by molecular dynamics and, if necessary, rationally designed or modified to improve their interaction for the target. The algorithms of these in silico tools are being improved to permit the precision development of new drugs and, in the future, this process will take the front of drug development against some central nervous system (CNS) disorders. Therefore, this review discusses the methodologies of in silico tools concerning P2 receptors, as well as future perspectives and discoveries, such as the employment of artificial intelligence in drug discovery.

Positively Charged Residues in the Head Domain of P2X4 Receptors Assist the Binding of ATP

P2X receptors are a family of trimeric cationic channels located in the membrane of mammalian cells. They open in response to the binding of ATP. The differences between the closed and open structures have been described in detail for some members of the family. However, the order in which the conformational changes take place as ATP enters the binding cleft, and the residues involved in the intermediate stages, are still unknown. Here, we present the results of umbrella sampling simulations aimed to elucidate the sequence of conformational changes that occur during the reversible binding of ATP to the P2X4 receptor. The simulations also provided information about the interactions that develop in the course of the process. In particular, they revealed the existence of a metastable state which assists the binding. This state is stabilized by positively charged residues located in the head domain of the receptor. Based on these findings, we propose a novel mechanism for the capture of ATP by P2X4 receptors.

Molecular determinants for agonist recognition and discrimination in P2X2 receptors

P2X receptors (P2XRs) are ligand-gated cation channels involved in pain and inflammation. Gasparri et al. show that the backbone carbonyl atoms of amino acid residue Thr184 are involved in ligand discrimination, while those of Lys69 contribute mostly to ligand recognition by rat P2X2Rs.

P2X receptors (P2XRs) are trimeric ligand-gated ion channels that open a cation-selective pore in response to ATP binding. P2XRs contribute to synaptic transmission and are involved in pain and inflammation, thus representing valuable drug targets. Recent crystal structures have confirmed the findings of previous studies with regards to the amino acid chains involved in ligand recognition, but they have also suggested that backbone carbonyl atoms contribute to ATP recognition and discrimination. Here we use a combination of site-directed mutagenesis, amide-to-ester substitutions, and a range of ATP analogues with subtle alterations to either base or sugar component to investigate the contributions of backbone carbonyl atoms toward ligand recognition and discrimination in rat P2X2Rs. Our findings demonstrate that while the Lys69 backbone carbonyl makes an important contribution to ligand recognition, the discrimination between different ligands is mediated by both the side chain and the backbone carbonyl oxygen of Thr184. Together, our data demonstrate how conserved elements in P2X2Rs recognize and discriminate agonists.

P2X Receptor Activation

Extracellular ATP-gated P2X receptors are trimeric non-selective cation channels important for many physiological events including immune response and neural transmission. These receptors belong to a unique class of ligand-gated ion channels composed of only six transmembrane helices and a relatively small extracellular domain that harbors three ATP-binding pockets. The crystal structures of P2X receptors, including the recent P2X3 structures representing three different stages of the gating cycle, have provided a compelling structural foundation for understanding how this class of ligand-gated ion channels function. These structures, in combination with numerous functional studies ranging from classic mutagenesis and electrophysiology to modern optogenetic pharmacology, have uncovered unique molecular mechanisms of P2X receptor function. This review article summarizes the current knowledge in P2X receptor activation, especially focusing on the mechanisms underlying ATP-binding, conformational changes in the extracellular domain, and channel gating and desensitization.

P2X receptors

Extracellular adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) activates cell surface P2X and P2Y receptors. P2X receptors are membrane ion channels preferably permeable to sodium, potassium and calcium that open within milliseconds of the binding of ATP. In molecular architecture, they form a unique structural family. The receptor is a trimer, the binding of ATP between subunits causes them to flex together within the ectodomain and separate in the membrane-spanning region so as to open a central channel. P2X receptors have a widespread tissue distribution. On some smooth muscle cells, P2X receptors mediate the fast excitatory junction potential that leads to depolarization and contraction. In the central nervous system, activation of P2X receptors allows calcium to enter neurons and this can evoke slower neuromodulatory responses such as the trafficking of receptors for the neurotransmitter glutamate. In primary afferent nerves, P2X receptors are critical for the initiation of action potentials when they respond to ATP released from sensory cells such as taste buds, chemoreceptors or urothelium. In immune cells, activation of P2X receptors triggers the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 1β. The development of selective blockers of different P2X receptors has led to clinical trials of their effectiveness in the management of cough, pain, inflammation and certain neurodegenerative diseases.This article is part of the themed issue 'Evolution brings Ca(2+) and ATP together to control life and death'.

A Highly Conserved Salt Bridge Stabilizes the Kinked Conformation of β2,3-Sheet Essential for Channel Function of P2X4 Receptors

Significant progress has been made in understanding the roles of crucial residues/motifs in the channel function of P2X receptors during the pre-structure era. The recent structural determination of P2X receptors allows us to reevaluate the role of those residues/motifs. Residues Arg-309 and Asp-85 (rat P2X4 numbering) are highly conserved throughout the P2X family and were involved in loss-of-function polymorphism in human P2X receptors. Previous studies proposed that they participated in direct ATP binding. However, the crystal structure of P2X demonstrated that those two residues form an intersubunit salt bridge located far away from the ATP-binding site. Therefore, it is necessary to reevaluate the role of this salt bridge in P2X receptors. Here, we suggest the crucial role of this structural element both in protein stability and in channel gating rather than direct ATP interaction and channel assembly. Combining mutagenesis, charge swap, and disulfide cross-linking, we revealed the stringent requirement of this salt bridge in normal P2X4 channel function. This salt bridge may contribute to stabilizing the bending conformation of the β2,3-sheet that is structurally coupled with this salt bridge and the α2-helix. Strongly kinked β2,3 is essential for domain-domain interactions between head domain, dorsal fin domain, right flipper domain, and loop β7,8 in P2X4 receptors. Disulfide cross-linking with directions opposing or along the bending angle of the β2,3-sheet toward the α2-helix led to loss-of-function and gain-of-function of P2X4 receptors, respectively. Further insertion of amino acids with bulky side chains into the linker between the β2,3-sheet or the conformational change of the α2-helix, interfering with the kinked conformation of β2,3, led to loss-of-function of P2X4 receptors. All these findings provided new insights in understanding the contribution of the salt bridge between Asp-85 and Arg-309 and its structurally coupled β2,3-sheet to the function of P2X receptors.

Inter-subunit disulfide locking of the human P2X3 receptor elucidates ectodomain movements associated with channel gating

P2X3 receptors (P2X3R) are trimeric ATP-gated cation channels involved in sensory neurotransmission and inflammatory pain. We used homology modeling and molecular dynamic simulations of the hP2X3R to identify inter-subunit interactions of residues that are instrumental to elucidate conformational changes associated with gating of the hPX3R. We identified an ionic interaction between E112 and R198 of the head domain and dorsal fin domain, respectively, and E57 and T263 of the lower body domains of adjacent subunits and detected a marked rearrangement of these domains during gating of the hP3X3R. Double-mutant cycle analysis of the inter-subunit residue pairs E112/R198 and E57/T263 revealed significant interaction-free energies. Disulfide locking of the hP2X3R E112C/R198C or the E57C/T263C double cysteine mutants markedly reduced the ATP-induced current responses. The decreased current amplitude following inter-subunit disulfide cross-linking indicates that disulfide locking of the head and dorsal fin domains or at the level of the lower body domains of the hP2X3R prevents the gating-induced conformational rearrangement of the subunits with respect to each other. The distinct reorganization of the subunit interfaces during gating of the hP2X3R is generally consistent with the gating mechanism of other P2XRs. Charge-reversal mutagenesis and methanethiosulfonate (MTS)-modification of substituted cysteines demonstrated that E112 and R198 interact electrostatically. Both disulfide locking and salt bridge breaking of the E112/R198 interaction reduced the hP2X3R function. We conclude that the inter-subunit salt bridge between E112 and R198 of the head and dorsal fin domains, respectively, serves to control the mobility of these domains during agonist-activation of the hP2X3R.

Photo-switchable tweezers illuminate pore-opening motions of an ATP-gated P2X ion channel

P2X receptors function by opening a transmembrane pore in response to extracellular ATP. Recent crystal structures solved in apo and ATP-bound states revealed molecular motions of the extracellular domain following agonist binding. However, the mechanism of pore opening still remains controversial. Here we use photo-switchable cross-linkers as ‘molecular tweezers’ to monitor a series of inter-residue distances in the transmembrane domain of the P2X2 receptor during activation. These experimentally based structural constraints combined with computational studies provide high-resolution models of the channel in the open and closed states. We show that the extent of the outer pore expansion is significantly reduced compared to the ATP-bound structure. Our data further reveal that the inner and outer ends of adjacent pore-lining helices come closer during opening, likely through a hinge-bending motion. These results provide new insight into the gating mechanism of P2X receptors and establish a versatile strategy applicable to other membrane proteins.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.11050.001

Protein receptors in the cell membrane play an important role transmitting signals from outside to inside the cell. Members of the P2X family of receptors are ion channels that form pores through the membrane. When a molecule of ATP binds to the external region of the receptor, it activates it and causes the receptor to change from a closed to an open shape. Once opened, ions flow through the channel’s pore and trigger a response inside the cell. P2X receptors are found on most animal cells (including nerve cells) and are involved in both normal cellular activity and processes linked to disease, including inflammation and chronic pain.

The P2X receptor has three parts or subunits, and each contributes to the channel’s pore. Recent research using a technique called X-ray crystallography has revealed how ATP binding causes shape changes in the external region of the receptor. But these three-dimensional structures did not reveal details of how the subunits move to open or close the channel’s pore.

Habermacher et al. have now added light-sensitive linkers onto the P2X receptor in a way that meant that different colors of light could be used to force parts of the receptor to come closer together or move apart. This allowed the pore to be opened and closed in response to changes in light. Habermacher et al. then studied the behavior of these modified receptors within a natural membrane and found that the light stimulated movements were similar to those seen with ATP. When the behavior of the receptor and light-sensitive linkers was studied using computer simulations, it led to new models of the P2X pore in the open and closed state. In these models, the open channel was more tightly packed than in the previous structure and an unexpected hinge-bending movement was seen to accompany the opening of the channel. It is hoped that this new approach will also be useful for probing how other membrane proteins change their shape when activated.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.11050.002

Insights into the channel gating of P2X receptors from structures, dynamics and small molecules

P2X receptors, as ATP-gated non-selective trimeric ion channels, are permeable to Na(+), K(+) and Ca(2+). Comparing with other ligand-gated ion channel families, P2X receptors are distinct in their unique gating properties and pathophysiological roles, and have attracted attention as promising drug targets for a variety of diseases, such as neuropathic pain, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis and thrombus. Several small molecule inhibitors for distinct P2X subtypes have entered into clinical trials. However, many questions regarding the gating mechanism of P2X remain unsolved. The structural determinations of P2X receptors at the resting and ATP-bound open states revealed that P2X receptor gating is a cooperative allosteric process involving multiple domains, which marks the beginning of the post-structure era of P2X research at atomic level. Here, we review the current knowledge on the structure-function relationship of P2X receptors, depict the whole picture of allosteric changes during the channel gating, and summarize the active sites that may contribute to new strategies for developing novel allosteric drugs targeting P2X receptors.

Key sites for P2X receptor function and multimerization: overview of mutagenesis studies on a structural basis

P2X receptors constitute a seven-member family (P2X1-7) of extracellular ATP-gated cation channels of widespread expression. Because P2X receptors have been implicated in neurological, inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases, they constitute promising drug targets. Since the first P2X cDNA sequences became available in 1994, numerous site-directed mutagenesis studies have been conducted to disclose key sites of P2X receptor function and oligomerization. The publication of the 3-Å crystal structures of the zebrafish P2X4 (zfP2X4) receptor in the homotrimeric apo-closed and ATP-bound open states in 2009 and 2012, respectively, has ushered a new era by allowing for the interpretation of the wealth of molecular data in terms of specific three-dimensional models and by paving the way for designing more-decisive experiments. Thanks to these structures, the last five years have provided invaluable insight into our understanding of the structure and function of the P2X receptor class of ligandgated ion channels. In this review, we provide an overview of mutagenesis studies of the pre- and post-crystal structure eras that identified amino acid residues of key importance for ligand binding, channel gating, ion flow, formation of the pore and the channel gate, and desensitization. In addition, the sites that are involved in the trimerization of P2X receptors are reviewed based on mutagenesis studies and interface contacts that were predicted by the zfP2X4 crystal structures.

Molecular structure and function of P2X receptors

ATP-gated P2X receptors are trimeric ion channels selective to cations. Recent progress in the molecular biophysics of these channels enables a better understanding of their function. In particular, data obtained from biochemical, electrophysiogical and molecular engineering in the light of recent X-ray structures now allow delineation of the principles of ligand binding, channel opening and allosteric modulation. However, although a picture emerges as to how ATP triggers channel opening, there are a number of intriguing questions that remain to be answered, in particular how the pore itself opens in response to ATP and how the intracellular domain, for which structural information is limited, moves during activation. In this review, we provide a summary of functional studies in the context of the post-structure era, aiming to clarify our understanding of the way in which P2X receptors function in response to ATP binding, as well as the mechanism by which allosteric modulators are able to regulate receptor function. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Purines in Neurodegeneration and Neuroregeneration'.

Intra-helical salt-bridge and helix destabilizing residues within the same helical turn: Role of functionally important loop E half-helix in channel regulation of major intrinsic proteins

The superfamily of major intrinsic proteins (MIPs) includes aquaporin (AQP) and aquaglyceroporin (AQGP) and it is involved in the transport of water and neutral solutes across the membrane. Diverse MIP sequences adopt a unique hour-glass fold with six transmembrane helices (TM1 to TM6) and two half-helices (LB and LE). Loop E contains one of the two conserved NPA motifs and contributes two residues to the aromatic/arginine selectivity filter. Function and regulation of majority of MIP channels are not yet characterized. We have analyzed the loop E region of 1468 MIP sequences and their structural models from six different organism groups. They can be phylogenetically clustered into AQGPs, AQPs, plant MIPs and other MIPs. The LE half-helix in all AQGPs contains an intra-helical salt-bridge and helix-breaking residues Gly/Pro within the same helical turn. All non-AQGPs lack this salt-bridge but have the helix destabilizing Gly and/or Pro in the same positions. However, the segment connecting LE half-helix and TM6 is longer by 10-15 residues in AQGPs compared to all non-AQGPs. We speculate that this longer loop in AQGPs and the LE half-helix of non-AQGPs will be relatively more flexible and this could be functionally important. Molecular dynamics simulations on glycerol-specific GlpF, water-transporting AQP1, its mutant and a fungal AQP channel confirm these predictions. Thus two distinct regions of loop E, one in AQGPs and the other in non-AQGPs, seem to be capable of modulating the transport. These regions can also act in conjunction with other extracellular residues/segments to regulate MIP channel transport.

Purinergic P2X receptors: structural models and analysis of ligand-target interaction

The purinergic P2X receptors are ligand-gated cation channels activated by the endogenous ligand ATP. They assemble as homo- or heterotrimers from seven cloned subtypes (P2X1-7) and all trimer subunits present a common topology consisting in intracellular N- and C- termini, two transmembrane domains and a large extracellular domain. These membrane proteins are present in virtually all mammalian tissues and regulate a large variety of responses in physio- and pathological conditions. The development of ligands that selectively activate or block specific P2X receptor subtypes hence represents a promising strategy to obtain novel pharmacological tools for the treatment of pain, cancer, inflammation, and neurological, cardiovascular, and endocrine diseases. The publication of the crystal structures of zebrafish P2X4 receptor in inactive and ATP-bound active forms provided structural data for the analysis of the receptor structure, the interpretation of mutagenesis data, and the depiction of ligand binding and receptor activation mechanism. In addition, the availability of ATP-competitive ligands presenting selectivity for P2X receptor subtypes supports the design of new potent and selective ligands with possibly improved pharmacokinetic profiles, with the final aim to obtain new drugs. This study describes molecular modelling studies performed to develop structural models of the human and rat P2X receptors in inactive and active states. These models allowed to analyse the role of some non-conserved residues at ATP binding site and to study the receptor interaction with some non-specific or subtype selective agonists and antagonists.

Conformational flexibility of the agonist binding jaw of the human P2X3 receptor is a prerequisite for channel opening

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

It is assumed that ATP induces closure of the binding jaw of ligand-gated P2X receptors, which eventually results in the opening of the membrane channel and the flux of cations. Immobilization by cysteine mutagenesis of the binding jaw inhibited ATP-induced current responses, but did not allow discrimination between disturbances of binding, gating, subunit assembly or trafficking to the plasma membrane.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

A molecular model of the pain-relevant human (h)P2X3 receptor was used to identify amino acid pairs, which were located at the lips of the binding jaw and did not participate in agonist binding but strongly approached each other even in the absence of ATP.

KEY RESULTS

A series of cysteine double mutant hP2X3 receptors, expressed in HEK293 cells or Xenopus laevis oocytes, exhibited depressed current responses to α,β-methylene ATP (α,β-meATP) due to the formation of spontaneous inter-subunit disulfide bonds. Reducing these bonds with dithiothreitol reversed the blockade of the α,β-meATP transmembrane current. Amino-reactive fluorescence labelling of the His-tagged hP2X3 receptor and its mutants expressed in HEK293 or X. laevis oocytes demonstrated the formation of inter-subunit cross links in cysteine double mutants and, in addition, confirmed their correct trimeric assembly and cell surface expression.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

In conclusion, spontaneous tightening of the binding jaw of the hP2X3 receptor by inter-subunit cross-linking of cysteine residues substituted at positions not directly involved in agonist binding inhibited agonist-evoked currents without interfering with binding, subunit assembly or trafficking.

Involvement of the left-flipper-to-dorsal-fin interface of the zebrafish P2X4 receptor in ATP binding and structural rearrangement

P2X receptors are trimeric ATP-activated non-selective cation channels. The ATP binding pocket is positioned between two neighboring subunits. Accompanying ligand binding, subunit-subunit contacts are most likely involved in receptor function and drive a conformational change to open the ion permeation pathway. In this way, we sought to determine the function of side chains of the zebrafish P2X4 receptor ectodomain left-flipper-to-dorsal-fin interface residues in ligand binding. By combining site-directed mutagenesis and electrophysiology methods, we showed that cysteine substitutions of I212, S215, Y216 and L217 resulted in decreased sensitivity to ATP. In addition, the ATP induced current at L217C was completely inhibited by sodium (2-sulfonatoethyl) methanethiosulfonate (MTSES(-)), indicating a role for this residue in ATP action. Deletion of residues 285-293 from the zebrafish P2X4 receptor abolished channel function. However, insertion of the same sequence frame into a homologous position of the rat P2X6 receptor did not rescue channel function, suggesting that these residues are necessary but not sufficient for achieving the correct ATP-induced conformation.

Ectodomain movements of an ATP-gated ion channel (P2X2 receptor) probed by disulfide locking

The ectodomain of the P2X receptor is formed mainly from two- or three-stranded β-sheets provided symmetrically by each of the three subunits. These enclose a central cavity that is closed off furthest from the plasma membrane (the turret) and that joins with the transmembrane helices to form the ion permeation pathway. Comparison of closed and open crystal structures indicates that ATP binds in a pocket positioned between strands provided by different subunits and that this flexes the β-sheets of the lower body and enlarges the central cavity: this pulls apart the outer ends of the transmembrane helices and thereby opens an aperture, or gate, where they intersect within the membrane bilayer. In the present work, we examined this opening model by introducing pairs of cysteines into the rat P2X2 receptor that might form disulfide bonds within or between subunits. Receptors were expressed in human embryonic kidney cells, and disulfide formation was assessed by observing the effect of dithiothreitol on currents evoked by ATP. Substitutions in the turret (P90C, P89C/S97C), body wall (S65C/S190C, S65C/D315C) and the transmembrane domains (V48C/I328C, V51C/I328C, S54C/I328C) strongly inhibited ATP-evoked currents prior to reduction with dithiothreitol. Western blotting showed that these channels also formed predominately as dimers and/or trimers rather than monomers. The results strongly support the channel opening mechanism proposed on the basis of available crystal structures.

A hydrophobic residue in position 15 of the rP2X3 receptor slows desensitization and reveals properties beneficial for pharmacological analysis and high-throughput screening

The homotrimeric P2X3 subtype, one of the seven members of the ATP-gated P2X receptor family, plays a role in sensory neurotransmission, including nociception. To overcome the bias resulting from fast desensitization of the P2X3 receptor in dose-response analyses, a non-desensitizing P2X2-X3 receptor chimera has been repeatedly used as a surrogate for the P2X3 receptor for functional analysis. Here, we show that only three of the P2X2-specific amino acid residues of the P2X2-X3 chimera, (19)P(21)V(22)I, are needed to confer a slowly desensitizing phenotype to the P2X3 receptor. The strongest delay in desensitization of the P2X3 receptor by a single residue was observed when (15)Ser was replaced by Val or another hydrophobic residue. Pharmacologically, the S(15)V-rP2X3 mutant behaved similarly to the wt-P2X3 receptor. Analysis of the S(15)V-rP2X3 receptor in 1321N1 astrocytoma cells by a common calcium-imaging-based assay showed 10-fold higher calcium transients relative to those of the wt-rP2X3 receptor. The S(15)V-rP2X3 cell line enabled reliable analysis of antagonistic potencies and correctly reported the mechanism of action of the P2X3 receptor antagonists A-317491 and TNP-ATP by a calcium-imaging assay. Together, these data suggest that the S(15)V-rP2X3 mutant may be suitable not only for automated fluorescence-based screening of molecule libraries for identification of lead compounds but also for facilitated pharmacological characterization of specific P2X3 receptor ligands. We suggest that the mechanism of desensitization of the P2X3 receptor may involve the movement of an N-terminal inactivation particle, in analogy to the "hinged-lid" or "ball and chain" mechanisms of voltage-gated NaV and Shaker KV channels, respectively.

Exploring the ATP-binding site of P2X receptors

P2X receptors are ATP-gated non-selective cation channels involved in many different physiological processes, such as synaptic transmission, inflammation, and neuropathic pain. They form homo- or heterotrimeric complexes and contain three ATP-binding sites in their extracellular domain. The recent determination of X-ray structures of a P2X receptor solved in two states, a resting closed state and an ATP-bound, open-channel state, has provided unprecedented information not only regarding the three-dimensional shape of the receptor, but also on putative conformational changes that couple ATP binding to channel opening. These data provide a structural template for interpreting the huge amount of functional, mutagenesis, and biochemical data collected during more than fifteen years. In particular, the interfacial location of the ATP binding site and ATP orientation have been successfully confirmed by these structural studies. It appears that ATP binds to inter-subunit cavities shaped like open jaws, whose tightening induces the opening of the ion channel. These structural data thus represent a firm basis for understanding the activation mechanism of P2X receptors.

Heteromeric assembly of P2X subunits

Transcripts and/or proteins of P2X receptor (P2XR) subunits have been found in virtually all mammalian tissues. Generally more than one of the seven known P2X subunits have been identified in a given cell type. Six of the seven cloned P2X subunits can efficiently form functional homotrimeric ion channels in recombinant expression systems. This is in contrast to other ligand-gated ion channel families, such as the Cys-loop or glutamate receptors, where homomeric assemblies seem to represent the exception rather than the rule. P2XR mediated responses recorded from native tissues rarely match exactly the biophysical and pharmacological properties of heterologously expressed homomeric P2XRs. Heterotrimerization of P2X subunits is likely to account for this observed diversity. While the existence of heterotrimeric P2X2/3Rs and their role in physiological processes is well established, the composition of most other P2XR heteromers and/or the interplay between distinct trimeric receptor complexes in native tissues is not clear. After a description of P2XR assembly and the structure of the intersubunit ATP-binding site, this review summarizes the distribution of P2XR subunits in selected mammalian cell types and the biochemically and/or functionally characterized heteromeric P2XRs that have been observed upon heterologous co-expression of P2XR subunits. We further provide examples where the postulated heteromeric P2XRs have been suggested to occur in native tissues and an overview of the currently available pharmacological tools that have been used to discriminate between homo- and heteromeric P2XRs.

Functional identification of close proximity amino acid side chains within the transmembrane-spanning helixes of the P2X2 receptor

The transition from the closed to open state greatly alters the intra- and inter-subunit interactions of the P2X receptor (P2XR). The interactions that occur in the transmembrane domain of the P2X2R remain unclear. We used substituted cysteine mutagenesis disulfide mapping to identify pairs of residues that are in close proximity within the transmembrane domain of rP2X2R and compared our results to the predicted positions of these amino acids obtained from a rat P2X2R homology model of the available open and closed zebrafish P2X4R structures. Alternations in channel function were measured as a change in the ATP-gated current before and after exposure to dithiothreitol. Thirty-six pairs of double mutants of rP2X2R expressed in HEK293 cells produced normal functioning channels. Thirty-five pairs of these mutants did not exhibit a functionally detectable disulfide bond. The double mutant H33C/S345C formed redox-dependent cross-links in the absence of ATP. Dithiothreitol ruptured the disulfide bond of H33C/S345C and induced a 2 to 3-fold increase in current. The EC₅₀ for H33C/S345C before dithiothreitol treatment was ∼2-fold higher than that after dithiothreitol treatment. Dithiothreitol reduced the EC₅₀ to wild-type levels. Furthermore, expression of trimeric concatamer receptors with Cys mutations at some but not all six positions showed that the more disulfide bond formation sites within the concatamer, the greater current potentiation after dithiothreitol incubation. Immunoblot analysis of H33C/S345C revealed one monomer band under nonreducing conditions strongly suggesting that disulfide bonds are formed within single subunits (intra-subunit) and not between two subunits (inter-subunit). Taken together, these data indicate that His33 and Ser345 are proximal to each other across an intra-subunit interface. The relative movement between the first transmembrane and the second transmembrane in the intra-subunit is likely important for transmitting the action of ATP binding to the opening of the channel.

P2X receptors as drug targets

The study of P2X receptors has long been handicapped by a poverty of small-molecule tools that serve as selective agonists and antagonists. There has been progress, particularly in the past 10 years, as cell-based high-throughput screening methods were applied, together with large chemical libraries. This has delivered some drug-like molecules in several chemical classes that selectively target P2X1, P2X3, or P2X7 receptors. Some of these are, or have been, in clinical trials for rheumatoid arthritis, pain, and cough. Current preclinical research programs are studying P2X receptor involvement in pain, inflammation, osteoporosis, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, and bladder dysfunction. The determination of the atomic structure of P2X receptors in closed and open (ATP-bound) states by X-ray crystallography is now allowing new approaches by molecular modeling. This is supported by a large body of previous work using mutagenesis and functional expression, and is now being supplemented by molecular dynamic simulations and in silico ligand docking. These approaches should lead to P2X receptors soon taking their place alongside other ion channel proteins as therapeutically important drug targets.

Neuromodulation by extracellular ATP and P2X receptors in the CNS

Extracellular adenosine 5' triphosphate (ATP) is a widespread cell-to-cell signaling molecule in the brain, where it activates cell surface P2X and P2Y receptors. P2X receptors define a protein family unlike other neurotransmitter-gated ion channels in terms of sequence, subunit topology, assembly, and architecture. Within milliseconds of binding ATP, they catalyze the opening of a cation-selective pore. However, recent data show that P2X receptors often underlie neuromodulatory responses on slower time scales of seconds or longer. Herein, we review these findings at molecular, cellular and systems levels. We propose that, while P2X receptors are fast ligand-gated cation channels, they are most adept at mediating slow neuromodulatory functions that are more widespread and more physiologically utilized than fast ATP synaptic transmission in the CNS.