1
|
Montoya-Novoa I, Gardeazábal-Torbado JL, Alegre-Martí A, Fuentes-Prior P, Estébanez-Perpiñá E. Androgen receptor post-translational modifications and their implications for pathology. Biochem Soc Trans 2024; 52:1673-1694. [PMID: 38958586 DOI: 10.1042/bst20231082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2024] [Revised: 06/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
A major mechanism to modulate the biological activities of the androgen receptor (AR) involves a growing number of post-translational modifications (PTMs). In this review we summarise the current knowledge on the structural and functional impact of PTMs that affect this major transcription factor. Next, we discuss the cross-talk between these different PTMs and the presence of clusters of modified residues in the AR protein. Finally, we discuss the implications of these covalent modifications for the aetiology of diseases such as spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (Kennedy's disease) and prostate cancer, and the perspectives for pharmacological intervention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Inés Montoya-Novoa
- Structural Biology of Nuclear Receptors, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona (UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Biomedicine of the University of Barcelona (IBUB), University of Barcelona (UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Luis Gardeazábal-Torbado
- Structural Biology of Nuclear Receptors, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona (UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Biomedicine of the University of Barcelona (IBUB), University of Barcelona (UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Andrea Alegre-Martí
- Structural Biology of Nuclear Receptors, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona (UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Biomedicine of the University of Barcelona (IBUB), University of Barcelona (UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pablo Fuentes-Prior
- Structural Biology of Nuclear Receptors, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona (UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Biomedicine of the University of Barcelona (IBUB), University of Barcelona (UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Eva Estébanez-Perpiñá
- Structural Biology of Nuclear Receptors, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona (UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Biomedicine of the University of Barcelona (IBUB), University of Barcelona (UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Moldovean-Cioroianu NS. Reviewing the Structure-Function Paradigm in Polyglutamine Disorders: A Synergistic Perspective on Theoretical and Experimental Approaches. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6789. [PMID: 38928495 PMCID: PMC11204371 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25126789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2024] [Revised: 06/13/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Polyglutamine (polyQ) disorders are a group of neurodegenerative diseases characterized by the excessive expansion of CAG (cytosine, adenine, guanine) repeats within host proteins. The quest to unravel the complex diseases mechanism has led researchers to adopt both theoretical and experimental methods, each offering unique insights into the underlying pathogenesis. This review emphasizes the significance of combining multiple approaches in the study of polyQ disorders, focusing on the structure-function correlations and the relevance of polyQ-related protein dynamics in neurodegeneration. By integrating computational/theoretical predictions with experimental observations, one can establish robust structure-function correlations, aiding in the identification of key molecular targets for therapeutic interventions. PolyQ proteins' dynamics, influenced by their length and interactions with other molecular partners, play a pivotal role in the polyQ-related pathogenic cascade. Moreover, conformational dynamics of polyQ proteins can trigger aggregation, leading to toxic assembles that hinder proper cellular homeostasis. Understanding these intricacies offers new avenues for therapeutic strategies by fine-tuning polyQ kinetics, in order to prevent and control disease progression. Last but not least, this review highlights the importance of integrating multidisciplinary efforts to advancing research in this field, bringing us closer to the ultimate goal of finding effective treatments against polyQ disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nastasia Sanda Moldovean-Cioroianu
- Institute of Materials Science, Bioinspired Materials and Biosensor Technologies, Kiel University, Kaiserstraße 2, 24143 Kiel, Germany;
- Faculty of Physics, Babeș-Bolyai University, Kogălniceanu 1, RO-400084 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Pennuto M, Pradat PF, Sorarù G, Greensmith L. 271st ENMC international workshop: Towards a unifying effort to fight Kennedy's disease. 20-22 October 2023, Hoofddorp, Netherlands. Neuromuscul Disord 2024; 38:8-19. [PMID: 38552412 DOI: 10.1016/j.nmd.2024.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2024] [Revised: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 03/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
The workshop held in the Netherlands from October 20-22, 2023, united 27 scientists from academia, healthcare, and industry representing 11 countries, alongside four patient and charity representatives. Focused on Kennedy's Disease (KD), also known as spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA), the workshop aimed to consolidate knowledge, align on clinical trial designs, and promote participative medicine for effective treatments. Discussions emphasized KD's molecular mechanisms, highlighting its status as a neuromuscular disorder with motor neuron degeneration. Strategies for therapeutic intervention, including AR activity modulation and targeting post-translational modifications, were proposed. The need for diagnostic, prognostic, and target engagement biomarkers was stressed. Challenges in patient stratification and clinical trial recruitment were acknowledged, with the International KD/SBMA Registry praised for its role. The workshop concluded with a patient-focused session, underscoring challenges in KD diagnosis and the vital support provided by patient associations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Pennuto
- Department of Biomedical Sciences (DBS), University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy; Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine (VIMM), Padova 35100, Italy.
| | - P F Pradat
- Département de Neurologie, AP-HP, Groupe hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, F-75013 Paris, France; Sorbonne Université, UPMC University Paris 06, CNRS, INSERM, Laboratoire d'Imagerie Biomédicale (LIB), 75013 Paris, France
| | - G Sorarù
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - L Greensmith
- Department of Neuromuscular Diseases, UCL Institute of Neurology, London, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Basu S, Martínez-Cristóbal P, Frigolé-Vivas M, Pesarrodona M, Lewis M, Szulc E, Bañuelos CA, Sánchez-Zarzalejo C, Bielskutė S, Zhu J, Pombo-García K, Garcia-Cabau C, Zodi L, Dockx H, Smak J, Kaur H, Batlle C, Mateos B, Biesaga M, Escobedo A, Bardia L, Verdaguer X, Ruffoni A, Mawji NR, Wang J, Obst JK, Tam T, Brun-Heath I, Ventura S, Meierhofer D, García J, Robustelli P, Stracker TH, Sadar MD, Riera A, Hnisz D, Salvatella X. Rational optimization of a transcription factor activation domain inhibitor. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2023; 30:1958-1969. [PMID: 38049566 PMCID: PMC10716049 DOI: 10.1038/s41594-023-01159-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/06/2023]
Abstract
Transcription factors are among the most attractive therapeutic targets but are considered largely 'undruggable' in part due to the intrinsically disordered nature of their activation domains. Here we show that the aromatic character of the activation domain of the androgen receptor, a therapeutic target for castration-resistant prostate cancer, is key for its activity as transcription factor, allowing it to translocate to the nucleus and partition into transcriptional condensates upon activation by androgens. On the basis of our understanding of the interactions stabilizing such condensates and of the structure that the domain adopts upon condensation, we optimized the structure of a small-molecule inhibitor previously identified by phenotypic screening. The optimized compounds had more affinity for their target, inhibited androgen-receptor-dependent transcriptional programs, and had an antitumorigenic effect in models of castration-resistant prostate cancer in cells and in vivo. These results suggest that it is possible to rationally optimize, and potentially even to design, small molecules that target the activation domains of oncogenic transcription factors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shaon Basu
- Department of Genome Regulation, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany
| | - Paula Martínez-Cristóbal
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Frigolé-Vivas
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireia Pesarrodona
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Michael Lewis
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elzbieta Szulc
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - C Adriana Bañuelos
- Genome Sciences, BC Cancer and Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Carolina Sánchez-Zarzalejo
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Stasė Bielskutė
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jiaqi Zhu
- Dartmouth College, Department of Chemistry, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Karina Pombo-García
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
| | - Carla Garcia-Cabau
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Levente Zodi
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Jordann Smak
- Radiation Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Harpreet Kaur
- Radiation Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Cristina Batlle
- Institut de Biotecnologia i Biomedicina and Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Borja Mateos
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mateusz Biesaga
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Albert Escobedo
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lídia Bardia
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Xavier Verdaguer
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Química Inorgànica i Orgànica, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alessandro Ruffoni
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Nasrin R Mawji
- Genome Sciences, BC Cancer and Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Jun Wang
- Genome Sciences, BC Cancer and Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Jon K Obst
- Genome Sciences, BC Cancer and Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Teresa Tam
- Genome Sciences, BC Cancer and Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Isabelle Brun-Heath
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Salvador Ventura
- Institut de Biotecnologia i Biomedicina and Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
| | - David Meierhofer
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Mass Spectrometry Facility, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jesús García
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Paul Robustelli
- Dartmouth College, Department of Chemistry, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Travis H Stracker
- Radiation Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Marianne D Sadar
- Genome Sciences, BC Cancer and Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
| | - Antoni Riera
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain.
- Departament de Química Inorgànica i Orgànica, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Denes Hnisz
- Department of Genome Regulation, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Xavier Salvatella
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain.
- ICREA, Barcelona, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Cicardi M, Hallgren J, Mawrie D, Krishnamurthy K, Markandaiah S, Nelson A, Kankate V, Anderson E, Pasinelli P, Pandey U, Eischen C, Trotti D. C9orf72 poly(PR) mediated neurodegeneration is associated with nucleolar stress. iScience 2023; 26:107505. [PMID: 37664610 PMCID: PMC10470315 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.107505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The ALS/FTD-linked intronic hexanucleotide repeat expansion in the C9orf72 gene is aberrantly translated in the sense and antisense directions into dipeptide repeat proteins, among which poly proline-arginine (PR) displays the most aggressive neurotoxicity in-vitro and in-vivo. PR partitions to the nucleus when heterologously expressed in neurons and other cell types. We show that by lessening the nuclear accumulation of PR, we can drastically reduce its neurotoxicity. PR strongly accumulates in the nucleolus, a nuclear structure critical in regulating the cell stress response. We determined that, in neurons, PR caused nucleolar stress and increased levels of the transcription factor p53. Downregulating p53 levels also prevented PR-mediated neurotoxicity both in in-vitro and in-vivo models. We investigated if PR could induce the senescence phenotype in neurons. However, we did not observe any indications of such an effect. Instead, we found evidence for the induction of programmed cell death via caspase-3 activation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M.E. Cicardi
- Weinberg ALS Center, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - J.H. Hallgren
- Weinberg ALS Center, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - D. Mawrie
- Center for Neuroscience, Department of Human Genetics, University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - K. Krishnamurthy
- Weinberg ALS Center, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - S.S. Markandaiah
- Weinberg ALS Center, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - A.T. Nelson
- Weinberg ALS Center, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - V. Kankate
- Weinberg ALS Center, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - E.N. Anderson
- Center for Neuroscience, Department of Human Genetics, University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - P. Pasinelli
- Weinberg ALS Center, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - U.B. Pandey
- Center for Neuroscience, Department of Human Genetics, University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - C.M. Eischen
- Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Cancer Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - D. Trotti
- Weinberg ALS Center, Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Marchioretti C, Andreotti R, Zuccaro E, Lieberman AP, Basso M, Pennuto M. Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy: From molecular pathogenesis to pharmacological intervention targeting skeletal muscle. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2023; 71:102394. [PMID: 37463556 DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2023.102394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023]
Abstract
The clinical characteristics of SBMA, also known as Kennedy's disease (OMIM 313200), were initially documented by Dr. H Kawahara in the 18th century and a hundred years later by Dr. W. Kennedy. SBMA is a neuromuscular disease caused by expansions of a CAG microsatellite tandem repeat in exon 1 of the androgen receptor (AR) gene located on the X chromosome. These expansions result in the production of AR with an aberrantly expanded polyglutamine (polyQ) tract. In this review, we explore recent advancements in the significance of gene expression changes in skeletal muscle and discuss how pharmacological interventions targeting this aspect of disease pathogenesis can potentially be translated into therapies for SBMA patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Caterina Marchioretti
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy; Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine (VIMM), Padova, Italy
| | - Roberta Andreotti
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy; Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine (VIMM), Padova, Italy
| | - Emanuela Zuccaro
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy; Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine (VIMM), Padova, Italy
| | - Andrew P Lieberman
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
| | - Manuela Basso
- Department of Cellular, Computational and Integrative Biology (CIBIO), University of Trento, Trento, Italy.
| | - Maria Pennuto
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy; Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine (VIMM), Padova, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Cicardi ME, Hallgren JH, Mawrie D, Krishnamurthy K, Markandaiah SS, Nelson AT, Kankate V, Anderson EN, Pasinelli P, Pandey UB, Eischen CM, Trotti D. C9orf72 poly(PR) mediated neurodegeneration is associated with nucleolar stress. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.02.16.528809. [PMID: 36824930 PMCID: PMC9949130 DOI: 10.1101/2023.02.16.528809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The ALS/FTD-linked intronic hexanucleotide repeat expansion in the C9orf72 gene is translated into dipeptide repeat proteins, among which poly-proline-arginine (PR) displays the most aggressive neurotoxicity in-vitro and in-vivo . PR partitions to the nucleus when expressed in neurons and other cell types. Using drosophila and primary rat cortical neurons as model systems, we show that by lessening the nuclear accumulation of PR, we can drastically reduce its neurotoxicity. PR accumulates in the nucleolus, a site of ribosome biogenesis that regulates the cell stress response. We examined the effect of nucleolar PR accumulation and its impact on nucleolar function and determined that PR caused nucleolar stress and increased levels of the transcription factor p53. Downregulating p53 levels, either genetically or by increasing its degradation, also prevented PR-mediated neurotoxic phenotypes both in in-vitro and in-vivo models. We also investigated whether PR could cause the senescence phenotype in neurons but observed none. Instead, we found induction of apoptosis via caspase-3 activation. In summary, we uncovered the central role of nucleolar dysfunction upon PR expression in the context of C9-ALS/FTD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M E Cicardi
- Jefferson Weinberg ALS Center
- Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - J H Hallgren
- Jefferson Weinberg ALS Center
- Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - D Mawrie
- Center for Neuroscience, Department of Human Genetics, University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - K Krishnamurthy
- Jefferson Weinberg ALS Center
- Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - S S Markandaiah
- Jefferson Weinberg ALS Center
- Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - A T Nelson
- Jefferson Weinberg ALS Center
- Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - V Kankate
- Jefferson Weinberg ALS Center
- Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - E N Anderson
- Center for Neuroscience, Department of Human Genetics, University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - P Pasinelli
- Jefferson Weinberg ALS Center
- Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - U B Pandey
- Center for Neuroscience, Department of Human Genetics, University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - C M Eischen
- Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Cancer Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - D Trotti
- Jefferson Weinberg ALS Center
- Vickie and Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| |
Collapse
|