Extremophile-based biohybrid micromotors for biomedical operations in harsh acidic environments

Chlorella-Based Biohybrid Microrobot for Removing Both Nutrient and Microalgae toward Efficient Water Eutrophication Treatment

Excessive nutrients and explosive growth of harmful microalgae in water environments are key challenges in the treatment of eutrophication. The development of a low-cost, time-saving, and small-space-suitable research method that can simultaneously remove nutrients and microalgae is highly anticipated. This work first proposed applying microrobots to eutrophication treatment. Phosphate and Microcystisaeruginosa (M. aeruginosa) were selected as representative nutrients and harmful microalgae, respectively, to investigate the efficient removal effect of the microrobots on the two. The Chlorella@Fe3O4@ZIF-8 biohybrid microrobot can not only perform the dual removal of phosphates and M. aeruginosa but also take advantage of its small size and controllable motion to achieve targeted treatment of eutrophication of water in microenvironments such as microchannels, thereby achieving the effect of fundamentally treating the eutrophication. The Chlorella@Fe3O4@ZIF-8 microrobot reveals a new strategy for the treatment of eutrophication and also exploits a new perspective for application research of microrobots.

Micro/nanorobots for gastrointestinal tract

The application of micro/nanomotors (MNMs) in the gastrointestinal tract has become a Frontier in the treatment of gastrointestinal diseases. These miniature robots can enter the gastrointestinal tract through oral administration, achieving precise drug delivery and therapy. They can traverse mucosal layers and tissue barriers, directly targeting tumors or other lesion sites, thereby enhancing the bioavailability and therapeutic effects of drugs. Through the application of nanotechnology, these MNMs are able to accomplish targeted medication release, regulating drug release in response to either external stimuli or the local biological milieu. This results in reduced side effects and increased therapeutic efficacy. This review summarizes the primary classifications and power sources of current MNMs, as well as their applications in the gastrointestinal tract, providing inspiration and direction for the treatment of gastrointestinal diseases with MNMs.

Collective buoyancy-driven dynamics in swarming enzymatic nanomotors

Enzymatic nanomotors harvest kinetic energy through the catalysis of chemical fuels. When a drop containing nanomotors is placed in a fuel-rich environment, they assemble into ordered groups and exhibit intriguing collective behaviour akin to the bioconvection of aerobic microorganismal suspensions. This collective behaviour presents numerous advantages compared to individual nanomotors, including expanded coverage and prolonged propulsion duration. However, the physical mechanisms underlying the collective motion have yet to be fully elucidated. Our study investigates the formation of enzymatic swarms using experimental analysis and computational modelling. We show that the directional movement of enzymatic nanomotor swarms is due to their solutal buoyancy. We investigate various factors that impact the movement of nanomotor swarms, such as particle concentration, fuel concentration, fuel viscosity, and vertical confinement. We examine the effects of these factors on swarm self-organization to gain a deeper understanding. In addition, the urease catalysis reaction produces ammonia and carbon dioxide, accelerating the directional movement of active swarms in urea compared with passive ones in the same conditions. The numerical analysis agrees with the experimental findings. Our findings are crucial for the potential biomedical applications of enzymatic nanomotor swarms, ranging from enhanced diffusion in bio-fluids and targeted delivery to cancer therapy.

Magneto-Thermal Hydrogel Swarms for Targeted Lesion Sealing

Magnetic microswarms capable of performing navigation to targeted lesions show great potential for in vivo medical applications. However, using the swarms for lesion cavity filling encounters challenges from precise delivery and sealing. Herein, this work develops a magneto-thermal hydrogel swarm consisting of magnetic hydrogel particles, which can perform phase transition induced by temperature change. The particles are prepared using a temperature-responsive hydrogel matrix, tissue adhesive monomers, and magnetic microparticles. The swarms can be remolded to various shapes, and it can be used to seal perforation in phantom and gastric tissue. The swarms can also serve as drug carriers, and their drug release profiles induced by temperature changes are characterized. Finally, the targeted delivery, adaptive filling, and sealing of a gastric ulcer using the swarms are achieved in ex vivo and in vivo environments.

Oral administration microrobots for drug delivery

Oral administration is the most simple, noninvasive, convenient treatment. With the increasing demands on the targeted drug delivery, the traditional oral treatment now is facing some challenges: 1) biologics how to implement the oral treatment and ensure the bioavailability is not lower than the subcutaneous injections; 2) How to achieve targeted therapy of some drugs in the gastrointestinal tract? Based on these two issues, drug delivery microrobots have shown great application prospect in oral drug delivery due to their characteristics of flexible locomotion or driven ability. Therefore, this paper summarizes various drug delivery microrobots developed in recent years and divides them into four categories according to different driving modes: magnetic-controlled drug delivery microrobots, anchored drug delivery microrobots, self-propelled drug delivery microrobots and biohybrid drug delivery microrobots. As oral drug delivery microrobots involve disciplines such as materials science, mechanical engineering, medicine, and control systems, this paper begins by introducing the gastrointestinal barriers that oral drug delivery must overcome. Subsequently, it provides an overview of typical materials involved in the design process of oral drug delivery microrobots. To enhance readers' understanding of the working principles and design process of oral drug delivery microrobots, we present a guideline for designing such microrobots. Furthermore, the current development status of various types of oral drug delivery microrobots is reviewed, summarizing their respective advantages and limitations. Finally, considering the significant concerns regarding safety and clinical translation, we discuss the challenges and prospections of clinical translation for various oral drug delivery microrobots presented in this paper, providing corresponding suggestions for addressing some existing challenges.

Nanogel-based nitric oxide-driven nanomotor for deep tissue penetration and enhanced tumor therapy

Antitumor agents often lack effective penetration and accumulation to achieve high therapeutic efficacy in treating solid tumors. Nanomotor-based nanomaterials offer a potential solution to address this obstacle. Among them, nitric oxide (NO) based nanomotors have garnered attention for their potential applications in nanomedicine. However, there widespread clinical adoption has been hindered by their complex preparation processes. To address this limitation, we have developed a NO-driven nanomotor utilizing a convenient and scalable nanogel preparation procedure. These nanomotors, loaded with the fluorescent probe / sonosensitizer chlorin e6 (Ce6), were specifically engineered for sonodynamic therapy. Through comprehensive in vitro investigations using both 2D and 3D cell models, as well as in vivo analysis of Ce6 fluorescent signal distribution in solid tumor models, we observed that the self-propulsion of these nanomotors significantly enhances cellular uptake and tumor penetration, particularly in solid tumors. This phenomenon enables efficient access to challenging tumor regions and, in some cases, results in complete tumor coverage. Notably, our nanomotors have demonstrated long-term in vivo biosafety. This study presents an effective approach to enhancing drug penetration and improving therapeutic efficacy in tumor treatment, with potential clinical relevance for future applications.

Biohybrid microrobots regulate colonic cytokines and the epithelium barrier in inflammatory bowel disease

Cytokines have been identified as key contributors to the development of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), yet conventional treatments often prove inadequate and carry substantial side effects. Here, we present an innovative biohybrid robotic system, termed "algae-MΦNP-robot," for addressing IBD by actively neutralizing colonic cytokine levels. Our approach combines moving green microalgae with macrophage membrane-coated nanoparticles (MΦNPs) to efficiently capture proinflammatory cytokines "on the fly." The dynamic algae-MΦNP-robots outperformed static counterparts by enhancing cytokine removal through continuous movement, better distribution, and extended retention in the colon. This system is encapsulated in an oral capsule, which shields it from gastric acidity and ensures functionality upon reaching the targeted disease site. The resulting algae-MΦNP-robot capsule effectively regulated cytokine levels, facilitating the healing of damaged epithelial barriers. It showed markedly improved prevention and treatment efficacy in a mouse model of IBD and demonstrated an excellent biosafety profile. Overall, our biohybrid algae-MΦNP-robot system offers a promising and efficient solution for IBD, addressing cytokine-related inflammation effectively.

Intelligent micro/nanorobots based on biotemplates

Intelligent micro/nanorobots based on natural materials as biotemplates are considered to be some of the most promising robots in the future in the microscopic field. Due to the advantages of biotemplates such as unique structure, abundant resources, environmental friendliness, easy removal, low price, easy access, and renewability, intelligent micro/nanorobots based on biotemplates can be endowed with both excellent biomaterial activity and unique structural morphology through biotemplates themselves and specific functions through artificial micro/nanotechnology. Thus, intelligent micro/nanorobots show excellent application potential in various fields from biomedical applications to environmental remediation. In this review, we introduce the advantages of using natural biological materials as biotemplates to build intelligent micro/nanorobots, and then, classify the micro/nanorobots according to different types of biotemplates, systematically detail their preparation strategies and summarize their application prospects. Finally, in order to further advance the development of intelligent micro/nanorobots, we discuss the current challenges and future prospects of biotemplates. Intelligent micro/nanorobots based on biotemplates are a perfect combination of natural biotemplates and micro/nanotechnology, which is an important trend for the future development of micro/nanorobots. We hope this review can provide useful references for developing more intelligent, efficient and safe micro/nanorobots in the future.

Biohybrid microrobots locally and actively deliver drug-loaded nanoparticles to inhibit the progression of lung metastasis

Lung metastasis poses a formidable challenge in the realm of cancer treatment, with conventional chemotherapy often falling short due to limited targeting and low accumulation in the lungs. Here, we show a microrobot approach using motile algae for localized delivery of drug-loaded nanoparticles to address lung metastasis challenges. The biohybrid microrobot [denoted "algae-NP(DOX)-robot"] combines green microalgae with red blood cell membrane-coated nanoparticles containing doxorubicin, a representative chemotherapeutic drug. Microalgae provide autonomous propulsion in the lungs, leveraging controlled drug release and enhanced drug dispersion to exert antimetastatic effects. Upon intratracheal administration, algae-NP(DOX)-robots efficiently transport their drug payload deep into the lungs while maintaining continuous motility. This strategy leads to rapid drug distribution, improved tissue accumulation, and prolonged retention compared to passive drug-loaded nanoparticles and free drug controls. In a melanoma lung metastasis model, algae-NP(DOX)-robots exhibit substantial improvement in therapeutic efficacy, reducing metastatic burden and extending survival compared to control groups.

Dielectrophoretic characterization and selection of non-spherical flagellate algae in parallel channels with right-angle bipolar electrodes

Non-spherical flagellate algae play an increasingly significant role in handling problematic issues as versatile biological micro/nanorobots and resources of valuable bioproducts. However, the commensalism of flagellate algae with distinct structures and constituents causes considerable difficulties in their further biological utilization. Therefore, it is imperative to develop a novel method to realize high-efficiency selection of non-spherical flagellate algae in a non-invasive manner. Enthused by these, we proposed a novel method to accomplish the selection of flagellate algae based on the numerical and experimental investigation of dielectrophoretic characterizations of flagellate algae. Firstly, an arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian method was utilized to study the electro-orientation and dielectrophoretic assembly process of spindle-shaped and ellipsoid-shaped cells in a uniform electric field. Secondly, we studied the equilibrium state of spherical, ellipsoid-shaped, and spindle-shaped cells under positive DEP forces actuated by right-angle bipolar electrodes. Thirdly, we investigated the dielectrophoretic assembly and escape processes of the non-spherical flagellate algae in continuous flow to explore their influences on the selection. Fourthly, freshwater flagellate algae (Euglena, H. pluvialis, and C. reinhardtii) and marine ones (Euglena, Dunaliella salina, and Platymonas) were separated to validate the feasibility and adaptability of this method. Finally, this approach was engineered in the selection of Euglena cells with high viability and motility. This method presents immense prospects in the selection of pure non-spherical flagellate algae with high motility for chronic wound healing, bio-micromotor construction, and decontamination with advantages of no sheath, strong reliability, and shape-insensitivity.

Untethered Microgrippers for Precision Medicine

Microgrippers, a branch of micro/nanorobots, refer to motile miniaturized machines that are of a size in the range of several to hundreds of micrometers. Compared with tethered grippers or other microscopic diagnostic and surgical equipment, untethered microgrippers play an indispensable role in biomedical applications because of their characteristics such as miniaturized size, dexterous shape tranformation, and  controllable motion, which enables the microgrippers to enter hard-to-reach regions to execute specific medical tasks for disease diagnosis and treatment. To date, numerous medical microgrippers are developed, and their potential in cell manipulation, targeted drug delivery, biopsy, and minimally invasive surgery  are explored. To achieve controlled locomotion and efficient target-oriented actions, the materials, size, microarchitecture, and morphology of microgrippers shall be deliberately designed. In this review, the authors summarizes the latest progress in untethered micrometer-scale grippers. The working mechanisms of shape-morphing and actuation methods for effective movement are first introduced. Then, the design principle and state-of-the-art fabrication techniques of microgrippers are discussed. Finally, their applications in the precise medicine are highlighted, followed by offering future perspectives for the development of untethered medical microgrippers.

Light-controlled soft bio-microrobot

Micro/nanorobots hold exciting prospects for biomedical and even clinical applications due to their small size and high controllability. However, it is still a big challenge to maneuver micro/nanorobots into narrow spaces with high deformability and adaptability to perform complicated biomedical tasks. Here, we report a light-controlled soft bio-microrobots (called "Ebot") based on Euglena gracilis that are capable of performing multiple tasks in narrow microenvironments including intestinal mucosa with high controllability, deformability and adaptability. The motion of the Ebot can be precisely navigated via light-controlled polygonal flagellum beating. Moreover, the Ebot shows highly controlled deformability with different light illumination duration, which allows it to pass through narrow and curved microchannels with high adaptability. With these features, Ebots are able to execute multiple tasks, such as targeted drug delivery, selective removal of diseased cells in intestinal mucosa, as well as photodynamic therapy. This light-controlled Ebot provides a new bio-microrobotic tool, with many new possibilities for biomedical task execution in narrow and complicated spaces where conventional tools are difficult to access due to the lack of deformability and bio-adaptability.

Cell-Based Micro/Nano-Robots for Biomedical Applications: A Review

Micro/nano-robots are powerful tools for biomedical applications and are applied in disease diagnosis, tumor imaging, drug delivery, and targeted therapy. Among the various types of micro-robots, cell-based micro-robots exhibit unique properties because of their different cell sources. In combination with various actuation methods, particularly externally propelled methods, cell-based microrobots have enormous potential for biomedical applications. This review introduces recent progress and applications of cell-based micro/nano-robots. Different actuation methods for micro/nano-robots are summarized, and cell-based micro-robots with different cell templates are introduced. Furthermore, the review focuses on the combination of cell-based micro/nano-robots with precise control using different external fields. Potential challenges, further prospects, and clinical translations are also discussed.

Platelet Membrane-Enclosed Bioorthogonal Catalysis for Combating Dental Caries

Platelets have shown promise as a means to combat bacterial infections, fostering the development of innovative therapeutic approaches. However, several challenges persist, including cargo loading issues, limited efficacy against biofilms, and concerns regarding the impact of payloads on the platelet carriers. Here, human platelet membrane vesicles (h-PMVs) encapsulating supramolecular metal catalysts (SMCs) as "nanofactories" to convert prodrugs into antimicrobial compounds within close proximity to bacteria are introduced. Having established the feasibility and effectiveness of the SMCs within h-PMVs, referred to as the PLT-reactor, to activate pro-antibiotic drugs (pro-ciprofloxacin and pro-moxifloxacin) using model organisms (Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923), the investigation is subsequently extended to oral biofilms, with a particular emphasis on Streptococcus mutans 3065. This "bind and kill" strategy demonstrates the potent antimicrobial specificity of the PLT-reactor through localized antibiotic production. h-PMVs play a pivotal role by enabling precise targeting of pathogenic biofilms on natural teeth while minimizing potential hemolytic effects. The finding indicates that platelet membrane-cloaked surfaces exhibit robust, multifaceted, and pathogen-specific binding affinity with excellent biocompatibility, making them a promising alternative to antibody-based therapies for infectious diseases.

Biohybrid Microalgae Robots: Design, Fabrication, Materials, and Applications

The integration of microorganisms and engineered artificial components has shown considerable promise for creating biohybrid microrobots. The unique features of microalgae make them attractive candidates as natural actuation materials for the design of biohybrid microrobotic systems. In this review, microalgae-based biohybrid microrobots are introduced for diverse biomedical and environmental applications. The distinct propulsion and phototaxis behaviors of green microalgae, as well as important properties from other photosynthetic microalga systems (blue-green algae and diatom) that are crucial to constructing powerful biohybrid microrobots, will be described first. Then the focus is on chemical and physical routes for functionalizing the algae surface with diverse reactive materials toward the fabrication of advanced biohybrid microalgae robots. Finally, representative applications of such algae-driven microrobots are presented, including drug delivery, imaging, and water decontamination, highlighting the distinct advantages of these active biohybrid robots, along with future prospects and challenges.

Designing self-triggered micro/milli devices for gastrointestinal tract drug delivery

INTRODUCTION

Self-triggered micro-/milli-devices (STMDs), which are artificial devices capable of responding to the surrounding environment and transferring external energy into kinetic energy, thus realizing autonomous movement, have come to the forefront as a powerful tool in cargo delivery via gastrointestinal tract. Urgent needs have been raised to overview the development of this area.

AREAS COVERED

We summarize the advancement of designing STMDs for delivery via gastrointestinal tract. We first give a brief overview on the opportunities and challenges of delivery via gastrointestinal tract involving gastric barriers and intestinal barriers. Then, emphasis is laid on the design and applications of STMDs for delivery via gastrointestinal tract. We focus on their morphological characteristics and function design, expounding their working mechanisms in the complex gastrointestinal tract.

EXPERT OPINION

Although with much progress in STMDs, there is still a huge gap between laboratory researches and clinical applications due to some limitations including latent digestive burden, sophisticated fabrication, unstable delivery, and so on. We give a discussion on the potential, challenges, and prospects of developing STMDs for delivery via gastrointestinal tract.

Biocompatible smart micro/nanorobots for active gastrointestinal tract drug delivery

INTRODUCTION

Oral delivery is the most commonly used route of drug administration owing to good patient compliance. However, the gastrointestinal (GI) tract contains multiple physiological barriers that limit the absorption efficiency of conventional passive delivery systems resulting in a low drug concentration reaching the diseased sites. Micro/nanorobots can convert energy to self-propulsive force, providing a novel platform to actively overcome GI tract barriers for noninvasive drug delivery and treatment.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we first describe the microenvironments and barriers in the different compartments of the GI tract. Afterward, the applications of micro/nanorobots to overcome GI tract barriers for active drug delivery are highlighted and discussed. Finally, we summarize and discuss the challenges and future prospects of micro/nanorobots for further clinical applications.

EXPERT OPINION

Micro/nanorobots with the ability to autonomously propel themselves and to load, transport, and release payloads on demand are ideal carriers for active oral drug delivery. Although there are many challenges to be addressed, micro/nanorobots have great potential to introduce a new era of drug delivery for precision therapy.

In vivo applications of micro/nanorobots

Untethered robots in the size range of micro/nano-scale offer unprecedented access to hard-to-reach areas of the body. In these challenging environments, autonomous task completion capabilities of micro/nanorobots have been the subject of research in recent years. However, most of the studies have presented preliminary in vitro results that can significantly differ under in vivo settings. Here, we focus on the studies conducted with animal models to reveal the current status of micro/nanorobotic applications in real-world conditions. By a categorization based on target locations, we highlight the main strategies employed in organs and other body parts. We also discuss key challenges that require interest before the successful translation of micro/nanorobots to the clinic.