Two-dimensional magnetic particles

Anisotropic Magnetic Resonance in Random Nanocrystal Quantum Dot Ensembles

Magnetic anisotropy critically determines the utility of magnetic nanocrystals (NCs) in new nanomagnetism technologies. Using angular-dependent electron magnetic resonance (EMR), we observe magnetic anisotropy in isotropically arranged NCs of a nonmagnetic material. We show that the shape of the EMR angular variation can be well described by a simple model that considers magnetic dipole-dipole interactions between dipoles randomly located in the NCs, most likely due to surface dangling bonds. The magnetic anisotropy results from the fact that the energy term arising from the magnetic dipole-dipole interactions between all magnetic moments in the system is dominated by only a few dipole pairs, which always have an anisotropic geometric arrangement. Our work shows that magnetic anisotropy may be a general feature of NC systems containing randomly distributed magnetic dipoles.

Sensitive detection of vortex-core resonance using amplitude-modulated magnetic field

Understanding and manipulating the dynamic properties of the magnetic vortices stabilized in patterned ferromagnetic structures are of great interest owing to the superior resonant features with the high thermal stability and their flexible tunability. So far, numerous methods for investigating the dynamic properties of the magnetic vortex have been proposed and demonstrated. However, those techniques have some regulations such as spatial resolution, experimental facility and sensitivity. Here, we develop a simple and sensitive method for investigating the vortex-core dynamics by using the electrically separated excitation and detection circuits. We demonstrate that the resonant oscillation of the magnetic vortex induced by the amplitude- modulated alternating-sign magnetic field is efficiently picked up by the lock-in detection with the modulated frequency. By extending this method, we also investigate the size dependence and the influence of the magneto-static interaction in the resonant property of the magnetic vortex.

Artificial ferroic systems: novel functionality from structure, interactions and dynamics

Lithographic processing and film growth technologies are continuing to advance, so that it is now possible to create patterned ferroic materials consisting of arrays of sub-1 μm elements with high definition. Some of the most fascinating behaviour of these arrays can be realised by exploiting interactions between the individual elements to create new functionality. The properties of these artificial ferroic systems differ strikingly from those of their constituent components, with novel emergent behaviour arising from the collective dynamics of the interacting elements, which are arranged in specific designs and can be activated by applying magnetic or electric fields. We first focus on artificial spin systems consisting of arrays of dipolar-coupled nanomagnets and, in particular, review the field of artificial spin ice, which demonstrates a wide range of fascinating phenomena arising from the frustration inherent in particular arrangements of nanomagnets, including emergent magnetic monopoles, domains of ordered macrospins, and novel avalanche behaviour. We outline how demagnetisation protocols have been employed as an effective thermal anneal in an attempt to reach the ground state, comment on phenomena that arise in thermally activated systems and discuss strategies for selectively generating specific configurations using applied magnetic fields. We then move on from slow field and temperature driven dynamics to high frequency phenomena, discussing spinwave excitations in the context of magnonic crystals constructed from arrays of patterned magnetic elements. At high frequencies, these arrays are studied in terms of potential applications including magnetic logic, linear and non-linear microwave optics, and fast, efficient switching, and we consider the possibility to create tunable magnonic crystals with artificial spin ice. Finally, we discuss how functional ferroic composites can be incorporated to realise magnetoelectric effects. Specifically, we discuss artificial multiferroics (or multiferroic composites), which hold promise for new applications that involve electric field control of magnetism, or electric and magnetic field responsive devices for high frequency integrated circuit design in microwave and terahertz signal processing. We close with comments on how enhanced functionality can be realised through engineering of nanostructures with interacting ferroic components, creating opportunities for novel spin electronic devices that, for example, make use of the transport of magnetic charges, thermally activated elements, and reprogrammable nanomagnet systems.

The magnetization processes and critical transition in a nanogranular magnetic film with perpendicular anisotropy

The mechanisms and properties of the equilibrium magnetization process for nanogranular films with perpendicular anisotropy placed in a tilted magnetic field are considered. The contributions of the effects of canting and flipping of the granules' magnetic moments to the process of film magnetization are studied. A critical behavior of the film magnetization at the transition, induced by a tilted magnetic field, from a state with non-uniform orientation of the granules' magnetic moments to one with a similar orientation is revealed. The results obtained within the two-level model of the orientation of the particles' magnetic moments are in good agreement with the experimental data for Co-Al(2)O(3) (61 at.% Co) granular film. The perpendicular anisotropy of the granules in this film originates mainly from their elongated shape. It is shown that in the non-uniform state the magnetostatic energy of a granular film with similarly oriented elongated granules can be described by the sum of contributions of two types: quasi-single-granular and quasi-film. The effective constant of the single-particle anisotropy of the granules in this case turns out to be dependent on the factor of volume filling of the film by granules, but not on its magnetization.

Magnetologic devices fabricated by nanostencil lithography

We present magnetic quantum cellular automata (MQCA), fabricated by means of nanostencil lithography, i.e., using a resistless shadow masking technique in ultra-high vacuum. The nanostencil tool allows the fabrication and in situ investigation of structures using atomic force microscopy (AFM) and magnetic force microscopy (MFM). We analyze the error distribution within the structures to shed light on the performance and challenges of magnetic cellular logic devices. Simulations are performed to corroborate an improved concept for these devices which makes use of fourfold magnetic anisotropy.

Investigation of non-collinear spin states with scanning tunneling microscopy

Most ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic substances show a simple collinear arrangement of the local spins. Under certain circumstances, however, the spin configuration is non-collinear. Scanning tunneling microscopy with its potential atomic resolution is an ideal tool for investigating these complex spin structures. Non-collinearity can be due to topological frustration of the exchange interaction, due to relativistic spin-orbit coupling or can be found in excited states. Examples for all three cases are given, illustrating the capabilities of spin-polarized scanning tunneling microscopy.

Information storing by biomagnetites

Since the discovery of the presence of biogenic magnetites in living organisms, there have been speculations on the role that these biomagnetites play in cellular processes. It seems that the formation of biomagnetite crystals is a universal phenomenon and not an exception in living cells. Many experimental facts show that features of organic and inorganic processes could be indistinguishable at nanoscale levels. Living cells are quantum "devices" rather than simple electronic devices utilizing only the charge of conduction electrons. In our opinion, due to their unusual biophysical properties, special biomagnetites must have a biological function in living cells in general and in the brain in particular. In this paper, we advance a hypothesis that while biomagnetites are developed jointly with organic molecules and cellular electromagnetic fields in cells, they can record information about the Earth's magnetic vector potential of the entire flight in migratory birds.

Three-dimensional optical metamaterials as model systems for longitudinal and transverse magnetic coupling

In this paper, we demonstrate that metamaterials represent model systems for longitudinal and transverse magnetic coupling in the optical domain. In particular, such coupling can lead to fully parallel or antiparallel alignment of the magnetic dipoles at the lowest frequency resonance. Also, we present the design scheme for constructing three-dimensional metamaterials with solely magnetic interaction. Our concept could pave the way for achieving rather complicated magnetic materials with desired arrangements of magnetic dipoles at optical frequencies.

Dipolar interactions and their influence on the critical single domain grain size of Ni in layered Ni/Al(2)O(3) composites

Pulsed laser deposition has been used to fabricate Ni/Al(2)O(3) multilayer composites in which Ni nanoparticles with diameters in the range of 3-60 nm are embedded as layers in an insulating Al(2)O(3) host. At fixed temperatures, the coercive fields plotted as a function of particle size show well-defined peaks, which define a critical size that delineates a crossover from coherently rotating single domain to multiple domain behavior. We observe a shift in peak position to higher grain size as temperature increases and describe this shift with theory that takes into account the decreasing influence of dipolar magnetic interactions from thermally induced random orientations of neighboring grains.

Ultrafast compact classical Mott polarimeter

An ultrafast compact classical Mott detector is described. The efficiency of the polarimeter is epsilon = 6 x 10(-4) and the maximum counting rate approximately 2000 kcps. The Mott polarimeter employs photomultipliers with scintillators as electron energy sensitive detectors with low dark noise. The photomultipliers and scintillators are placed in vacuum. With this choice of technology, it will be possible to build a classical Mott detector with a bulk size of cubic decimeter in the future.

Magnetic metastability in tetrahedrally bonded magnetic III-nitride semiconductors

Results of density-functional calculations for isolated transition metal (TM = V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni on cation sites) doped GaN demonstrate a novel magnetic metastability in dilute magnetic semiconductors. In addition to the expected high spin ground states (4muB/Mn and 5muB/Fe), there are also metastable low spin states (0muB/Mn and 1muB/Fe)--a phenomenon that can be explained in simple terms on the basis of the ligand field theory. The transition between the high spin and low spin states corresponds to an intraionic transfer of two electrons between the t2 and e orbitals, accompanied by a spin-flip process. The results suggest that TM-doped wideband semiconductors (such as GaN and AlN) may present a new type of light-induced spin-crossover material.

Dynamic shadow mask technique: a universal tool for nanoscience

A comprehensive instrument, designed for fabricating nanostructures by evaporation through a dynamic shadow mask in ultrahigh vacuum, is described. The versatility and performance of the instrument is demonstrated through a series of examples, allowing for applications that are impossible to achieve with traditional nanopatterning methods. Clean nanostructures or entire devices made of different materials and on various substrates can be fabricated. The technique is compatible with fundamental surface science and can be easily interfaced with other fabrication and characterization techniques.

Direct observation of the single-domain limit of Fe nanomagnets by spin-polarized scanning tunneling spectroscopy

We have investigated the magnetic structure of self-organized Fe islands on W(001) by means of spin-polarized scanning tunneling spectroscopy (Sp-STS). Single-domain, simple vortex, and distorted vortex states have been observed. The high resolution magnetic images were used to experimentally determine the single-domain limit. The experimental structures were compared with results of micromagnetic calculations confirming the ground state nature of the experimental configurations. The single-domain limit directly observed with Sp-STS is consistent with theoretical predictions.

Magnetic relaxation of interacting co clusters: crossover from two- to three-dimensional lattices

The influence that dipole-dipole interactions exert on the dynamics of the magnetization of nanometer-sized Co clusters has been studied by means of ac and dc susceptibility experiments. These clusters grow in a quasiordered layered structure, where all relevant parameters can be tailored and measured independently. Our data show without ambiguity that the magnetic relaxation becomes slower as the degree of interaction increases. The effective activation energy increases linearly with the number of nearest neighbor clusters, evolving from the value for a 2D layer to the fully 3D behavior, which is nearly reached for five layers. The experimental results agree quantitatively with the predictions of a simple model.

Ferromagnetism in one-dimensional monatomic metal chains

Two-dimensional systems, such as ultrathin epitaxial films and superlattices, display magnetic properties distinct from bulk materials. A challenging aim of current research in magnetism is to explore structures of still lower dimensionality. As the dimensionality of a physical system is reduced, magnetic ordering tends to decrease as fluctuations become relatively more important. Spin lattice models predict that an infinite one-dimensional linear chain with short-range magnetic interactions spontaneously breaks up into segments with different orientation of the magnetization, thereby prohibiting long-range ferromagnetic order at a finite temperature. These models, however, do not take into account kinetic barriers to reaching equilibrium or interactions with the substrates that support the one-dimensional nanostructures. Here we demonstrate the existence of both short- and long-range ferromagnetic order for one-dimensional monatomic chains of Co constructed on a Pt substrate. We find evidence that the monatomic chains consist of thermally fluctuating segments of ferromagnetically coupled atoms which, below a threshold temperature, evolve into a ferromagnetic long-range-ordered state owing to the presence of anisotropy barriers. The Co chains are characterized by large localized orbital moments and correspondingly large magnetic anisotropy energies compared to two-dimensional films and bulk Co.

Continuous ice-core chemical analyses using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

Impurities trapped in ice sheets and glaciers have the potential to provide detailed, high temporal resolution proxy information on paleo-environments, atmospheric circulation, and environmental pollution through the use of chemical, isotopic, and elemental tracers. We present a novel approach to ice-core chemical analyses in which an ice-core melter is coupled directly with both an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer and a traditional continuous flow analysis system. We demonstrate this new approach using replicated measurements of ice-core samples from Summit, Greenland. With this method, it is possible to readily obtain continuous, exactly coregistered concentration records for a large number of elements and chemical species at ppb and ppt levels and at unprecedented depth resolution. Such very-high depth resolution, multiparameter measurements will significantly expand the use of ice-core records for environmental proxies.

Direct investigation of superparamagnetism in Co nanoparticle films

A direct probe of superparamagnetism was used to determine the complete anisotropy energy distribution of Co nanoparticle films. The films were composed of self-assembled lattices of uniform Co nanoparticles of 3 or 5 nm in diameter, and a variable temperature scanning-SQUID microscope was used to measure temperature-induced spontaneous magnetic noise in the samples. Accurate measurements of anisotropy energy distributions of small volume samples will be critical to magnetic optimization of nanoparticle devices and media.

Ultrafast magnetization reversal dynamics investigated by time domain imaging

Spatiotemporal magnetization reversal dynamics in a Ni(80)Fe(20) microstructure is studied using ps time scale scanning Kerr microscopy. Time domain images reveal a striking change in the reversal associated with the reduction in switching time when a transverse bias field is applied. Magnetization oscillations subsequent to reversal are observed at two resonance frequencies, which sensitively depend on the bias field strength. The oscillation at f = 2 GHz is caused by the damped precession of M, while the lower frequency approximately 0.8 GHz mode is interpreted in terms of domain wall oscillation.

Imaging precessional motion of the magnetization vector

We report on imaging of three-dimensional precessional orbits of the magnetization vector in a magnetic field by means of a time-resolved vectorial Kerr experiment that measures all three components of the magnetization vector with picosecond resolution. Images of the precessional mode taken with submicrometer spatial resolution reveal that the dynamical excitation in this time regime roughly mirrors the symmetry of the underlying equilibrium spin configuration and that its propagation has a non-wavelike character. These results should form the basis for realistic models of the magnetization dynamics in a largely unexplored but technologically increasingly relevant time scale.

Two-step disordering of perpendicularly magnetized ultrathin films

We have imaged the stripe domain structure of perpendicularly magnetized fcc ultrathin Fe films grown on Cu(100). The stripe phase has a strong local orientational order and sustains the two kinds of fluctuations predicted by Abanov et al. [Phys. Rev. B 51, 1023 (1995)]: meandering and dislocations. Before reaching the Curie temperature, the stripes transform into a new and so far unobserved domain structure, characterized by domains with predominantly square corners. We argue that this phase is the tetragonal liquid phase proposed by Abanov et al. to separate the stripe phase from the paramagnetic phase. This two-step disordering is reminiscent of a two-dimensional melting process.

Minimum field strength in precessional magnetization reversal

Ultrafast magnetic field pulses as short as 2 picoseconds are able to reverse the magnetization in thin, in-plane, magnetized cobalt films. The field pulses are applied in the plane of the film, and their direction encompasses all angles with the magnetization. At a right angle to the magnetization, maximum torque is exerted on the spins. In this geometry, a precessional magnetization reversal can be triggered by fields as small as 184 kiloamperes per meter. Applications in future ultrafast magnetic recording schemes can be foreseen.

Chiral magnetic domain structures in ultrathin FePd films

The magnetization profile of magnetically ordered patterns in ultrathin films was determined by circular dichroism in x-ray resonant magnetic scattering (CDXRMS). When this technique was applied to single crystalline iron palladium alloy layers, magnetic flux closure domains were found whose thickness can constitute a large fraction ( approximately 25 percent) of the total film.