Ca(2+) puffs originate from preestablished stable clusters of inositol trisphosphate receptors

Signalling switches maintain intercellular communication in the vascular endothelium

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The single layer of cells lining all blood vessels, the endothelium, is a sophisticated signal co-ordination centre that controls a wide range of vascular functions including the regulation of blood pressure and blood flow. To co-ordinate activities, communication among cells is required for tissue level responses to emerge. While a significant form of communication occurs by the propagation of signals between cells, the mechanism of propagation in the intact endothelium is unresolved.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Precision signal generation and targeted cellular manipulation was used in conjunction with high spatiotemporal mesoscale Ca2+ imaging in the endothelium of intact blood vessels.

KEY RESULTS

Multiple mechanisms maintain communication so that Ca2+ wave propagation occurs irrespective of the status of connectivity among cells. Between adjoining cells, regenerative IP3-induced IP3 production transmits Ca2+ signals and explains the propagated vasodilation that underlies the increased blood flow accompanying tissue activity. The inositide is itself sufficient to evoke regenerative phospholipase C-dependent Ca2+ waves across coupled cells. None of gap junctions, Ca2+ diffusion or the release of extracellular messengers is required to support this type of intercellular Ca2+ signalling. In contrast, when discontinuities exist between cells, ATP released as a diffusible extracellular messenger transmits Ca2+ signals across the discontinuity and drives propagated vasodilation.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

These results show that signalling switches underlie endothelial cell-to-cell signal transmission and reveal how communication is maintained in the face of endothelial damage. The findings provide a new framework for understanding wave propagation and cell signalling in the endothelium.

A PACAP-activated network for secretion requires coordination of Ca2+ influx and Ca2+ mobilization

Chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla transduce sympathetic nerve activity into stress hormone secretion. The two neurotransmitters principally responsible for coupling cell stimulation to secretion are acetylcholine and pituitary adenylate activating polypeptide (PACAP). In contrast to acetylcholine, PACAP evokes a persistent secretory response from chromaffin cells. However, the mechanisms by which PACAP acts are poorly understood. Here, it is shown that PACAP induces sustained increases in cytosolic Ca2+ which are disrupted when Ca2+ influx through L-type channels is blocked or internal Ca2+ stores are depleted. PACAP liberates stored Ca2+ via inositol trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), thereby functionally coupling Ca2+ mobilization to Ca2+ influx and supporting Ca2+-induced Ca2+-release. These Ca2+ influx and mobilization pathways are unified by an absolute dependence on phospholipase C epsilon (PLCε) activity. Thus, the persistent secretory response that is a defining feature of PACAP activity, in situ, is regulated by a signaling network that promotes sustained elevations in intracellular Ca2+ through multiple pathways.

A PACAP-activated network for secretion requires coordination of Ca 2+ influx and Ca 2+ mobilization

Chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla transduce sympathetic nerve activity into stress hormone secretion. The two neurotransmitters principally responsible for coupling cell stimulation to secretion are acetylcholine and pituitary adenylate activating polypeptide (PACAP). In contrast to acetylcholine, PACAP evokes a persistent secretory response from chromaffin cells. However, the mechanisms by which PACAP acts are poorly understood. Here, it is shown that PACAP induces sustained increases in cytosolic Ca 2+ which are disrupted when Ca 2+ influx through L-type channels is blocked or internal Ca 2+ stores are depleted. PACAP liberates stored Ca 2+ via inositol trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), thereby functionally coupling Ca 2+ mobilization to Ca 2+ influx and supporting Ca 2+ -induced Ca 2+ -release. These Ca 2+ influx and mobilization pathways are unified by an absolute dependence on phospholipase C epsilon (PLCε) activity. Thus, the persistent secretory response that is a defining feature of PACAP activity, in situ , is regulated by a signaling network that promotes sustained elevations in intracellular Ca 2+ through multiple pathways.

Understanding IP3R channels: From structural underpinnings to ligand-dependent conformational landscape

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) are ubiquitously expressed large-conductance Ca2+-permeable channels predominantly localized to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membranes of virtually all eukaryotic cell types. IP3Rs work as Ca2+ signaling hubs through which diverse extracellular stimuli and intracellular inputs are processed and then integrated to result in delivery of Ca2+ from the ER lumen to generate cytosolic Ca2+ signals with precise temporal and spatial properties. IP3R-mediated Ca2+ signals control a vast repertoire of cellular functions ranging from gene transcription and secretion to the more enigmatic brain activities such as learning and memory. IP3Rs open and release Ca2+ when they bind both IP3 and Ca2+, the primary channel agonists. Despite overwhelming evidence supporting functional interplay between IP3 and Ca2+ in activation and inhibition of IP3Rs, the mechanistic understanding of how IP3R channels convey their gating through the interplay of two primary agonists remains one of the major puzzles in the field. The last decade has seen much progress in the use of cryogenic electron microscopy to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of ligand binding, ion permeation, ion selectivity and gating of the IP3R channels. The results of these studies, summarized in this review, provide a prospective view of what the future holds in structural and functional research of IP3Rs.

IP3 receptors: An "elementary" journey from structure to signals

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) are large tetrameric channels which sit mostly in the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mediate Ca2+ release from intracellular stores in response to extracellular stimuli in almost all cells. Dual regulation of IP3Rs by IP3 and Ca2+ itself, upstream "licensing", and the arrangement of IP3Rs into small clusters in the ER membrane, allow IP3Rs to generate spatially and temporally diverse Ca2+ signals. The characteristic biphasic regulation of IP3Rs by cytosolic Ca2+ concentration underpins regenerative Ca2+ signals by Ca2+-induced Ca2+-release, while also preventing uncontrolled explosive Ca2+ release. In this way, cells can harness a simple ion such as Ca2+ as a near-universal intracellular messenger to regulate diverse cellular functions, including those with conflicting outcomes such as cell survival and cell death. High-resolution structures of the IP3R bound to IP3 and Ca2+ in different combinations have together started to unravel the workings of this giant channel. Here we discuss, in the context of recently published structures, how the tight regulation of IP3Rs and their cellular geography lead to generation of "elementary" local Ca2+ signals known as Ca2+ "puffs", which form the fundamental bottleneck through which all IP3-mediated cytosolic Ca2+ signals must first pass.

Dissociation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate from IP3 receptors contributes to termination of Ca2+ puffs

Ca²⁺ puffs are brief, localized Ca²⁺ signals evoked by physiological stimuli that arise from the coordinated opening of a few clustered inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP₃Rs). However, the mechanisms that control the amplitude and termination of Ca²⁺ puffs are unresolved. To address these issues, we expressed SNAP-tagged IP₃R3 in HEK cells without endogenous IP₃Rs and used total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to visualize the subcellular distribution of IP₃Rs and the Ca²⁺ puffs that they evoke. We first confirmed that SNAP-IP₃R3 were reliably identified and that they evoked normal Ca²⁺ puffs after photolysis of a caged analog of IP₃. We show that increased IP₃R expression caused cells to assemble more IP₃R clusters, each of which contained more IP₃Rs, but the mean amplitude of Ca²⁺ puffs (indicative of the number of open IP₃Rs) was unaltered. We thus suggest that functional interactions between IP₃Rs constrain the number of active IP₃Rs within a cluster. Furthermore, Ca²⁺ puffs evoked by IP₃R with reduced affinity for IP₃ had undiminished amplitude, but the puffs decayed more quickly. The selective effect of reducing IP₃ affinity on the decay times of Ca²⁺ puffs was not mimicked by exposing normal IP₃R to a lower concentration of IP₃. We conclude that distinct mechanisms constrain recruitment of IP₃Rs during the rising phase of a Ca²⁺ puff and closure of IP₃Rs during the falling phase, and that only the latter is affected by the rate of IP₃ dissociation.

Functional determination of calcium-binding sites required for the activation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) initiate a diverse array of physiological responses by carefully orchestrating intracellular calcium (Ca2+) signals in response to various external cues. Notably, IP3R channel activity is determined by several obligatory factors, including IP3, Ca2+, and ATP. The critical basic amino acid residues in the N-terminal IP3-binding core (IBC) region that facilitate IP3 binding are well characterized. In contrast, the residues conferring regulation by Ca2+ have yet to be ascertained. Using comparative structural analysis of Ca2+-binding sites identified in two main families of intracellular Ca2+-release channels, ryanodine receptors (RyRs) and IP3Rs, we identified putative acidic residues coordinating Ca2+ in the cytosolic calcium sensor region in IP3Rs. We determined the consequences of substituting putative Ca2+ binding, acidic residues in IP3R family members. We show that the agonist-induced Ca2+ release, single-channel open probability (P0), and Ca2+ sensitivities are markedly altered when the negative charge on the conserved acidic side chain residues is neutralized. Remarkably, neutralizing the negatively charged side chain on two of the residues individually in the putative Ca2+-binding pocket shifted the Ca2+ required to activate IP3R to higher concentrations, indicating that these residues likely are a component of the Ca2+ activation site in IP3R. Taken together, our findings indicate that Ca2+ binding to a well-conserved activation site is a common underlying mechanism resulting in increased channel activity shared by IP3Rs and RyRs.

Termination of Ca2+ puffs during IP3-evoked global Ca2+ signals

We previously described that cell-wide cytosolic Ca²⁺ transients evoked by inositol trisphosphate (IP₃) are generated by two modes of Ca²⁺ liberation from the ER; 'punctate' release via an initial flurry of transient Ca²⁺ puffs from local clusters of IP₃ receptors, succeeded by a spatially and temporally 'diffuse' Ca²⁺ liberation. Those findings were derived using statistical fluctuation analysis to monitor puff activity which is otherwise masked as global Ca²⁺ levels rise. Here, we devised imaging approaches to resolve individual puffs during global Ca²⁺ elevations to better investigate the mechanisms terminating the puff flurry. We find that puffs contribute about 40% (∼90 attomoles) of the total Ca²⁺ liberation, largely while the global Ca²⁺ signal rises halfway to its peak. The major factor terminating punctate Ca²⁺ release is an abrupt decline in puff frequency. Although the amplitudes of large puffs fall during the flurry, the amplitudes of more numerous small puffs remain steady, so overall puff amplitudes decline only modestly (∼30%). The Ca²⁺ flux through individual IP₃ receptor/channels does not measurably decline during the flurry, or when puff activity is depressed by pharmacological lowering of Ca²⁺ levels in the ER lumen, indicating that the termination of punctate release is not a simple consequence of reduced driving force for Ca²⁺ liberation. We propose instead that the gating of IP₃ receptors at puff sites is modulated such that their openings become suppressed as the bulk [Ca²⁺] in the ER lumen falls during global Ca²⁺ signals.

KRAP tethers IP3 receptors to actin and licenses them to evoke cytosolic Ca2+ signals

Regulation of IP₃ receptors (IP₃Rs) by IP₃ and Ca²⁺ allows regenerative Ca²⁺ signals, the smallest being Ca²⁺ puffs, which arise from coordinated openings of a few clustered IP₃Rs. Cells express thousands of mostly mobile IP₃Rs, yet Ca²⁺ puffs occur at a few immobile IP₃R clusters. By imaging cells with endogenous IP₃Rs tagged with EGFP, we show that KRas-induced actin-interacting protein (KRAP) tethers IP₃Rs to actin beneath the plasma membrane. Loss of KRAP abolishes Ca²⁺ puffs and the global increases in cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration evoked by more intense stimulation. Over-expressing KRAP immobilizes additional IP₃R clusters and results in more Ca²⁺ puffs and larger global Ca²⁺ signals. Endogenous KRAP determines which IP₃Rs will respond: it tethers IP₃R clusters to actin alongside sites where store-operated Ca²⁺ entry occurs, licenses IP₃Rs to evoke Ca²⁺ puffs and global cytosolic Ca²⁺ signals, implicates the actin cytoskeleton in IP₃R regulation and may allow local activation of Ca²⁺ entry.

Modeling of Astrocyte Networks: Toward Realistic Topology and Dynamics

Neuronal firing and neuron-to-neuron synaptic wiring are currently widely described as orchestrated by astrocytes—elaborately ramified glial cells tiling the cortical and hippocampal space into non-overlapping domains, each covering hundreds of individual dendrites and hundreds thousands synapses. A key component to astrocytic signaling is the dynamics of cytosolic Ca²⁺ which displays multiscale spatiotemporal patterns from short confined elemental Ca²⁺ events (puffs) to Ca²⁺ waves expanding through many cells. Here, we synthesize the current understanding of astrocyte morphology, coupling local synaptic activity to astrocytic Ca²⁺ in perisynaptic astrocytic processes and morphology-defined mechanisms of Ca²⁺ regulation in a distributed model. To this end, we build simplified realistic data-driven spatial network templates and compile model equations as defined by local cell morphology. The input to the model is spatially uncorrelated stochastic synaptic activity. The proposed modeling approach is validated by statistics of simulated Ca²⁺ transients at a single cell level. In multicellular templates we observe regular sequences of cell entrainment in Ca²⁺ waves, as a result of interplay between stochastic input and morphology variability between individual astrocytes. Our approach adds spatial dimension to the existing astrocyte models by employment of realistic morphology while retaining enough flexibility and scalability to be embedded in multiscale heterocellular models of neural tissue. We conclude that the proposed approach provides a useful description of neuron-driven Ca²⁺-activity in the astrocyte syncytium.

Quantification of fluctuations from fluorescence correlation spectroscopy experiments in reaction-diffusion systems

Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) is commonly used to estimate diffusion and reaction rates. In FCS the fluorescence coming from a small volume is recorded and the autocorrelation function (ACF) of the fluorescence fluctuations is computed. Scaling out the fluctuations due to the emission process, this ACF can be related to the ACF of the fluctuations in the number of observed fluorescent molecules. In this paper the ACF of the molecule number fluctuations is studied theoretically, with no approximations, for a reaction-diffusion system in which the fluorescence changes with binding and unbinding. Theoretical ACFs are usually derived assuming that fluctuations in the number of molecules of one species are instantaneously uncorrelated to those of the others and obey Poisson statistics. Under these assumptions, the ACF derived in this paper is characterized only by the diffusive timescale of the fluorescent species and its total weight is the inverse of the mean number of observed fluorescent molecules. The theory is then scrutinized in view of previous experimental results which, for a similar system, gave a different total weight and correct estimates of other diffusive timescales. The total weight mismatch is corrected by assuming that the variance of the number of fluorescent molecules depends on the variance of the particle numbers of the other species, as in the variance decomposition formula. Including the finite acquisition time in its computation, it is shown that the ACF depends on various timescales of the system and that its total weight coincides with the one obtained with the variance decomposition formula. This calculation implies that diffusion coefficients of nonobservable species can be estimated with FCS experiments performed in reaction-diffusion systems. Ways to proceed in future experiments are also discussed.

Noise analysis of cytosolic calcium image data

Cellular Ca²⁺ signals are often constrained to cytosolic micro- or nano-domains where stochastic openings of Ca²⁺ channels cause large fluctuations in local Ca²⁺ concentration (Ca²⁺ 'noise'). With the advent of TIRF microscopy to image the fluorescence of Ca²⁺-sensitive probes from attoliter volumes it has become possible to directly monitor these signals, which closely track the gating of plasmalemmal and ER Ca²⁺-permeable channels. Nevertheless, it is likely that many physiologically important Ca²⁺ signals are too small to resolve as discrete events in fluorescence recordings. By analogy with noise analysis of electrophysiological data, we explore here the use of statistical approaches to detect and analyze such Ca²⁺ noise in images obtained using Ca²⁺-sensitive indicator dyes. We describe two techniques - power spectrum analysis and spatio-temporal correlation - and demonstrate that both effectively identify discrete, spatially localized calcium release events (Ca²⁺ puffs). Moreover, we show they are able to detect localized noise fluctuations in a case where discrete events cannot directly be resolved.

Simulation of calcium signaling in fine astrocytic processes: Effect of spatial properties on spontaneous activity

Astrocytes, a glial cell type of the central nervous system, have emerged as detectors and regulators of neuronal information processing. Astrocyte excitability resides in transient variations of free cytosolic calcium concentration over a range of temporal and spatial scales, from sub-microdomains to waves propagating throughout the cell. Despite extensive experimental approaches, it is not clear how these signals are transmitted to and integrated within an astrocyte. The localization of the main molecular actors and the geometry of the system, including the spatial organization of calcium channels IP3R, are deemed essential. However, as most calcium signals occur in astrocytic ramifications that are too fine to be resolved by conventional light microscopy, most of those spatial data are unknown and computational modeling remains the only methodology to study this issue. Here, we propose an IP3R-mediated calcium signaling model for dynamics in such small sub-cellular volumes. To account for the expected stochasticity and low copy numbers, our model is both spatially explicit and particle-based. Extensive simulations show that spontaneous calcium signals arise in the model via the interplay between excitability and stochasticity. The model reproduces the main forms of calcium signals and indicates that their frequency crucially depends on the spatial organization of the IP3R channels. Importantly, we show that two processes expressing exactly the same calcium channels can display different types of calcium signals depending on the spatial organization of the channels. Our model with realistic process volume and calcium concentrations successfully reproduces spontaneous calcium signals that we measured in calcium micro-domains with confocal microscopy and predicts that local variations of calcium indicators might contribute to the diversity of calcium signals observed in astrocytes. To our knowledge, this model is the first model suited to investigate calcium dynamics in fine astrocytic processes and to propose plausible mechanisms responsible for their variability.

Structure and Function of IP3 Receptors

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP₃Rs), by releasing Ca²⁺ from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of animal cells, allow Ca²⁺ to be redistributed from the ER to the cytosol or other organelles, and they initiate store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE). For all three IP₃R subtypes, binding of IP₃ primes them to bind Ca²⁺, which then triggers channel opening. We are now close to understanding the structural basis of IP₃R activation. Ca²⁺-induced Ca²⁺ release regulated by IP₃ allows IP₃Rs to regeneratively propagate Ca²⁺ signals. The smallest of these regenerative events is a Ca²⁺ puff, which arises from the nearly simultaneous opening of a small cluster of IP₃Rs. Ca²⁺ puffs are the basic building blocks for all IP₃-evoked Ca²⁺ signals, but only some IP₃ clusters, namely those parked alongside the ER-plasma membrane junctions where SOCE occurs, are licensed to respond. The location of these licensed IP₃Rs may allow them to selectively regulate SOCE.

Spatial-temporal patterning of Ca2+ signals by the subcellular distribution of IP3 and IP3 receptors

The patterning of cytosolic Ca²⁺ signals in space and time underlies their ubiquitous ability to specifically regulate numerous cellular processes. Signals mediated by liberation of Ca²⁺ sequestered in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) through inositol trisphosphate receptor (IP₃R) channels constitute a hierarchy of events; ranging from openings of individual IP₃ channels, through the concerted openings of several clustered IP₃Rs to generate local Ca²⁺ puffs, to global Ca²⁺ waves and oscillations that engulf the entire cell. Here, we review recent progress in elucidating how this hierarchy is shaped by an interplay between the functional gating properties of IP₃Rs and their spatial distribution within the cell. We focus in particular on the subset of IP₃Rs that are organized in stationary clusters and are endowed with the ability to preferentially liberate Ca²⁺.

All three IP3 receptor isoforms generate Ca2+ puffs that display similar characteristics

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP₃) evokes Ca²⁺ release through IP₃ receptors (IP₃Rs) to generate both local Ca²⁺ puffs arising from concerted openings of clustered IP₃Rs and cell-wide Ca²⁺ waves. Imaging Ca²⁺ puffs with single-channel resolution yields information on the localization and properties of native IP₃Rs in intact cells, but interpretation has been complicated because cells express varying proportions of three structurally and functionally distinct isoforms of IP₃Rs. Here, we used TIRF and light-sheet microscopy to image Ca²⁺ puffs in HEK-293 cell lines generated by CRISPR-Cas9 technology to express exclusively IP₃R type 1, 2, or 3. Photorelease of the IP₃ analog i-IP₃ in all three cell lines evoked puffs with largely similar mean amplitudes, temporal characteristics, and spatial extents. Moreover, the single-channel Ca²⁺ flux was similar among isoforms, indicating that clusters of different IP₃R isoforms contain comparable numbers of active channels. Our results show that all three IP₃R isoforms cluster to generate local Ca²⁺ puffs and, contrary to findings of divergent properties from in vitro electrophysiological studies, display similar conductances and gating kinetics in intact cells.

IP3 receptors – lessons from analyses ex cellula

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) are widely expressed intracellular channels that release Ca2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). We review how studies of IP3Rs removed from their intracellular environment (‘ex cellula’), alongside similar analyses of ryanodine receptors, have contributed to understanding IP3R behaviour. Analyses of permeabilized cells have demonstrated that the ER is the major intracellular Ca2+ store, and that IP3 stimulates Ca2+ release from this store. Radioligand binding confirmed that the 4,5-phosphates of IP3 are essential for activating IP3Rs, and facilitated IP3R purification and cloning, which paved the way for structural analyses. Reconstitution of IP3Rs into lipid bilayers and patch-clamp recording from the nuclear envelope have established that IP3Rs have a large conductance and select weakly between Ca2+ and other cations. Structural analyses are now revealing how IP3 binding to the N-terminus of the tetrameric IP3R opens the pore ∼7 nm away from the IP3-binding core (IBC). Communication between the IBC and pore passes through a nexus of interleaved domains contributed by structures associated with the pore and cytosolic domains, which together contribute to a Ca2+-binding site. These structural analyses provide evidence to support the suggestion that IP3 gates IP3Rs by first stimulating Ca2+ binding, which leads to pore opening and Ca2+ release.

Applications of FLIKA, a Python-based image processing and analysis platform, for studying local events of cellular calcium signaling

The patterning of cytosolic Ca²⁺ signals underlies their ubiquitous ability to specifically regulate numerous cellular processes. Advances in fluorescence microscopy have made it possible to image these signals with unprecedented temporal and spatial resolution. However, this is a double-edged sword, as the resulting enormous data sets necessitate development of software to automate image processing and analysis. Here, we describe Flika, an open source, graphical user interface program written in the Python environment that contains a suite of built-in image processing tools to enable intuitive visualization of image data and analysis. We illustrate the utility and power of Flika by three applications for studying cellular Ca²⁺ signaling: a script for measuring single-cell global Ca²⁺ signals; a plugin for the detection, localization and analysis of subcellular Ca²⁺ puffs; and a script that implements a novel approach for fluctuation analysis of transient, local Ca²⁺ fluorescence signals. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: ECS Meeting edited by Claus Heizmann, Joachim Krebs and Jacques Haiech.

IP3 receptors and Ca2+ entry

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP₃R) are the most widely expressed intracellular Ca²⁺ release channels. Their activation by IP₃ and Ca²⁺ allows Ca²⁺ to pass rapidly from the ER lumen to the cytosol. The resulting increase in cytosolic [Ca²⁺] may directly regulate cytosolic effectors or fuel Ca²⁺ uptake by other organelles, while the decrease in ER luminal [Ca²⁺] stimulates store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE). We are close to understanding the structural basis of both IP₃R activation, and the interactions between the ER Ca²⁺-sensor, STIM, and the plasma membrane Ca²⁺ channel, Orai, that lead to SOCE. IP₃Rs are the usual means through which extracellular stimuli, through ER Ca²⁺ release, stimulate SOCE. Here, we review evidence that the IP₃Rs most likely to respond to IP₃ are optimally placed to allow regulation of SOCE. We also consider evidence that IP₃Rs may regulate SOCE downstream of their ability to deplete ER Ca²⁺ stores. Finally, we review evidence that IP₃Rs in the plasma membrane can also directly mediate Ca²⁺ entry in some cells.

Disentangling astroglial physiology with a realistic cell model in silico

Electrically non-excitable astroglia take up neurotransmitters, buffer extracellular K+ and generate Ca2+ signals that release molecular regulators of neural circuitry. The underlying machinery remains enigmatic, mainly because the sponge-like astrocyte morphology has been difficult to access experimentally or explore theoretically. Here, we systematically incorporate multi-scale, tri-dimensional astroglial architecture into a realistic multi-compartmental cell model, which we constrain by empirical tests and integrate into the NEURON computational biophysical environment. This approach is implemented as a flexible astrocyte-model builder ASTRO. As a proof-of-concept, we explore an in silico astrocyte to evaluate basic cell physiology features inaccessible experimentally. Our simulations suggest that currents generated by glutamate transporters or K+ channels have negligible distant effects on membrane voltage and that individual astrocytes can successfully handle extracellular K+ hotspots. We show how intracellular Ca2+ buffers affect Ca2+ waves and why the classical Ca2+ sparks-and-puffs mechanism is theoretically compatible with common readouts of astroglial Ca2+ imaging.

All three IP3 receptor subtypes generate Ca2+ puffs, the universal building blocks of IP3-evoked Ca2+ signals

All three subtypes of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP₃R) are intracellular Ca²⁺ channels that are co-regulated by IP₃ and Ca²⁺. This allows IP₃Rs to evoke regenerative Ca²⁺ signals, the smallest of which are Ca²⁺ puffs that reflect the coordinated opening of a few clustered IP₃Rs. We use total internal reflection microscopy (TIRF) microscopy to record Ca²⁺ signals in HEK cells expressing all three IP₃R subtypes or a single native subtype. Ca²⁺ puffs are less frequent in cells expressing one IP₃R subtype, commensurate with them expressing fewer IP₃Rs than wild-type cells. However, all three IP₃R subtypes generate broadly similar Ca²⁺ puffs with similar numbers of IP₃Rs contributing to each. This suggests that IP₃R clusters may be assembled by conserved mechanisms that generate similarly sized clusters across different IP₃R expression levels. The Ca²⁺ puffs evoked by IP₃R2 had slower kinetics and more prolonged durations, which may be due to IP₃ binding with greater affinity to IP₃R2. We conclude that Ca²⁺ puffs are the building blocks for the Ca²⁺ signals evoked by all IP₃Rs.

Summary: All IP₃ receptor subtypes can generate Ca²⁺ puffs, suggesting that these coordinated openings of clustered IP₃Rs are the building blocks of all IP₃-evoked Ca²⁺ signals.

Using two dyes to observe the competition of Ca2+ trapping mechanisms and their effect on intracellular Ca2+ signals

The specificity and universality of intracellular [Formula: see text] signals rely on the variety of spatio-temporal patterns that the [Formula: see text] concentration can display. [Formula: see text] liberation through inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors ([Formula: see text]) is key for this variety. In this paper, we study how the competition between buffers of different kinetics affects [Formula: see text] signals that involve [Formula: see text] release through [Formula: see text]. The study also provides insight into the underlying spatial distribution of the channels that participate in the signals. Previous works on the effects of [Formula: see text] buffers have drawn conclusions 'indirectly' by observing the [Formula: see text]-bound dye distributions in the presence of varying concentrations of exogenous buffers and using simulations to interpret the results. In this paper, we make visible the invisible by observing the signals simultaneously with two dyes, [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text], each of which plays the role of a slow or fast [Formula: see text] buffer, respectively. Our observations obtained for different concentrations of [Formula: see text] highlight the dual role that fast buffers exert on the dynamics, either reducing the intracluster channel coupling or preventing channel inhibition and allowing the occurrence of relatively long cycles of [Formula: see text] release. Our experiments also show that signals with relatively high [Formula: see text] release rates remain localized in the presence of large [Formula: see text] concentrations, while the mean speed of the elicited waves increases. We interpret this as a consequence of the more effective uncoupling between [Formula: see text] clusters as the slow dye concentration increases. Combining the analysis of the experiments with numerical simulations, we also conclude that [Formula: see text] release not only occurs within the close vicinity of the centers of the clearly identifiable release sites ([Formula: see text] clusters) but there are also functional [Formula: see text] in between them.

Intracellular calcium dysregulation in autism spectrum disorder: An analysis of converging organelle signaling pathways

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a group of complex, neurological disorders that affect early cognitive, social, and verbal development. Our understanding of ASD has vastly improved with advances in genomic sequencing technology and genetic models that have identified >800 loci with variants that increase susceptibility to ASD. Although these findings have confirmed its high heritability, the underlying mechanisms by which these genes produce the ASD phenotypes have not been defined. Current efforts have begun to "functionalize" many of these variants and envisage how these susceptibility factors converge at key biochemical and biophysical pathways. In this review, we discuss recent work on intracellular calcium signaling in ASD, including our own work, which begins to suggest it as a compelling candidate mechanism in the pathophysiology of autism and a potential therapeutic target. We consider how known variants in the calcium signaling genomic architecture of ASD may exert their deleterious effects along pathways particularly involving organelle dysfunction including the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), a major calcium store, and the mitochondria, a major calcium ion buffer, and theorize how many of these pathways intersect.

Synaptic neuron-astrocyte communication is supported by an order of magnitude analysis of inositol tris-phosphate diffusion at the nanoscale in a model of peri-synaptic astrocyte projection

Background

Astrocytes were conceived for decades only as supporting cells of the brain. However, the observation of Ca2+ waves in astrocyte synctitia, their neurotransmitter receptor expression and gliotransmitter secretion suggested a role in information handling, conception that has some controversies. Synaptic Neuron-Astrocyte metabotropic communication mediated by Inositol tris-phosphate (SN-AmcIP3) is supported by different reports. However, some models contradict this idea and Ca2+ stores are 1000 ± 325 nm apart from the Postsynaptic Density in the Perisynaptic Astrocyte Projections (PAP’s), suggesting that SN-AmcIP3 is extrasynaptic. However, this assumption does not consider IP3 Diffusion Coefficient (Dab), that activates IP3 Receptor (IP3R) releasing Ca2+ from intracellular stores.

Results

In this work we idealized a model of a PAP (PAPm) to perform an order of magnitude analysis of IP3 diffusion using a transient mass diffusion model. This model shows that IP3 forms a concentration gradient along the PAPm that reaches the steady state in milliseconds, three orders of magnitude before IP3 degradation. The model predicts that IP3 concentration near the Ca2+ stores may activate IP3R, depending upon Phospholipase C (PLC) number and activity. Moreover, the PAPm supports that IP3 and extracellular Ca2+ entry synergize to promote global Ca2+ transients.

Conclusion

The model presented here indicates that Ca2+ stores position in PAP’s does not limit SN-AmcIP3.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13628-018-0043-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Dynamic Ca2+ imaging with a simplified lattice light-sheet microscope: A sideways view of subcellular Ca2+ puffs

We describe the construction of a simplified, inexpensive lattice light-sheet microscope, and illustrate its use for imaging subcellular Ca²⁺ puffs evoked by photoreleased i-IP₃ in cultured SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells loaded with the Ca²⁺ probe Cal520. The microscope provides sub-micron spatial resolution and enables recording of local Ca²⁺ transients in single-slice mode with a signal-to-noise ratio and temporal resolution (2ms) at least as good as confocal or total internal reflection microscopy. Signals arising from openings of individual IP₃R channels are clearly resolved, as are stepwise changes in fluorescence reflecting openings and closings of individual channels during puffs. Moreover, by stepping the specimen through the light-sheet, the entire volume of a cell can be scanned within a few hundred ms. The ability to directly visualize a sideways (axial) section through cells directly reveals that IP₃-evoked Ca²⁺ puffs originate at sites in very close (≤a few hundred nm) to the plasma membrane, suggesting they play a specific role in signaling to the membrane.

Ca2+ signals initiate at immobile IP3 receptors adjacent to ER-plasma membrane junctions

IP₃ receptors (IP₃Rs) release Ca²⁺ from the ER when they bind IP₃ and Ca²⁺. The spatial organization of IP₃Rs determines both the propagation of Ca²⁺ signals between IP₃Rs and the selective regulation of cellular responses. Here we use gene editing to fluorescently tag endogenous IP₃Rs, and super-resolution microscopy to determine the geography of IP₃Rs and Ca²⁺ signals within living cells. We show that native IP₃Rs cluster within ER membranes. Most IP₃R clusters are mobile, moved by diffusion and microtubule motors. Ca²⁺ signals are generated by a small population of immobile IP₃Rs. These IP₃Rs are licensed to respond, but they do not readily mix with mobile IP₃Rs. The licensed IP₃Rs reside alongside ER-plasma membrane junctions where STIM1, which regulates store-operated Ca²⁺ entry, accumulates after depletion of Ca²⁺ stores. IP₃Rs tethered close to ER-plasma membrane junctions are licensed to respond and optimally placed to be activated by endogenous IP₃ and to regulate Ca²⁺ entry.

IP₃ receptors mediate Ca²⁺ release from the endoplasmic reticulum. Here the authors show that only a small fraction of IP₃ receptors initiate Ca²⁺ signals; these immobile IP₃ receptors adjacent to the plasma membrane are optimally placed to control STIM1-dependent Ca²⁺ entry.

Endogenous signalling pathways and caged IP3 evoke Ca2+ puffs at the same abundant immobile intracellular sites

The building blocks of intracellular Ca²⁺ signals evoked by inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP₃Rs) are Ca²⁺ puffs, transient focal increases in Ca²⁺ concentration that reflect the opening of small clusters of IP₃Rs. We use total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy and automated analyses to detect Ca²⁺ puffs evoked by photolysis of caged IP₃ or activation of endogenous muscarinic receptors with carbachol in human embryonic kidney 293 cells. Ca²⁺ puffs evoked by carbachol initiated at an estimated 65±7 sites/cell, and the sites remained immobile for many minutes. Photolysis of caged IP₃ evoked Ca²⁺ puffs at a similar number of sites (100±35). Increasing the carbachol concentration increased the frequency of Ca²⁺ puffs without unmasking additional Ca²⁺ release sites. By measuring responses to sequential stimulation with carbachol or photolysed caged IP₃, we established that the two stimuli evoked Ca²⁺ puffs at the same sites. We conclude that IP₃-evoked Ca²⁺ puffs initiate at numerous immobile sites and the sites become more likely to fire as the IP₃ concentration increases; there is no evidence that endogenous signalling pathways selectively deliver IP₃ to specific sites.

Summary: Ca²⁺ puffs are the building blocks for IP₃-evoked Ca²⁺ signals. Ca²⁺ puffs evoked by caged IP₃ or via endogenous signalling pathways initiate at the same fixed intracellular sites.

Ca2+ Microdomains in T-Lymphocytes

Early Ca²⁺ signaling is characterized by occurrence of Ca²⁺ microdomains formed by opening of single or clusters of Ca²⁺ channels, thereby initiating first signaling and subsequently activating global Ca²⁺ signaling mechanisms. However, only few data are available focusing on the first seconds and minutes of Ca²⁺ microdomain formation and related signaling pathways in activated T-lymphocytes. In this review, we condense current knowledge on Ca²⁺ microdomain formation in T-lymphocytes and early Ca²⁺ signaling, function of Ca²⁺ microdomains, and microdomain organization. Interestingly, considering the first seconds of T cell activation, a triphasic Ca²⁺ signal is becoming apparent: (i) initial Ca²⁺ microdomains occurring in the first second of T cell activation, (ii) amplification of Ca²⁺ microdomains by recruitment of further channels in the next 5-10 s, and (iii) a transition to global Ca²⁺ increase. Apparently, the second messenger nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate is the first second messenger involved in initiation of Ca²⁺ microdomains. Ryanodine receptors type 1 act as initial Ca²⁺ release channels in CD4⁺ T-lymphocytes. Regarding the temporal correlation of Ca²⁺ microdomains with other molecular events of T cell activation, T cell receptor-dependent microdomain organization of signaling molecules Grb2 and Src homology [SH2] domain-containing leukocyte protein of 65 kDa was observed within the first 20 s. In addition, fast cytoskeletal changes are initiated. Furthermore, the involvement of additional Ca²⁺ channels and organelles, such as the Ca²⁺ buffering mitochondria, is discussed. Future research developments will comprise analysis of the causal relation between these temporally coordinated signaling events. Taken together, high-resolution Ca²⁺ imaging techniques applied to T cell activation in the past years paved the way to detailed molecular understanding of initial Ca²⁺ signaling mechanisms in non-excitable cells.

Sexual Dimorphism in a Reciprocal Interaction of Ryanodine and IP3 Receptors in the Induction of Hyperalgesic Priming

Hyperalgesic priming, a model of pain chronification in the rat, is mediated by ryanodine receptor-dependent calcium release. Although ryanodine induces priming in both sexes, females are 5 orders of magnitude more sensitive, by an estrogen receptor α (EsRα)-dependent mechanism. An inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP₃) receptor inhibitor prevented the induction of priming by ryanodine. For IP₃ induced priming, females were also more sensitive. IP₃-induced priming was prevented by pretreatment with inhibitors of the sarcoendoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase and ryanodine receptor. Antisense to EsRα prevented the induction of priming by low-dose IP₃ in females. The induction of priming by an EsRα agonist was ryanodine receptor-dependent and prevented by the IP₃ antagonist. Thus, an EsRα-dependent bidirectional interaction between endoplasmic reticulum IP₃ and ryanodine receptor-mediated calcium signaling is present in the induction of hyperalgesic priming, in females. In cultured male DRG neurons, IP₃ (100 μm) potentiated depolarization-induced transients produced by extracellular application of high-potassium solution (20 mm, K20), in nociceptors incubated with β-estradiol. This potentiation of depolarization-induced calcium transients was blocked by the IP₃ antagonist, and not observed in the absence of IP₃ IP₃ potentiation was also blocked by ryanodine receptor antagonist. The application of ryanodine (2 nm), instead of IP₃, also potentiated K20-induced calcium transients in the presence of β-estradiol, in an IP₃ receptor-dependent manner. Our results point to an EsRα-dependent, reciprocal interaction between IP₃ and ryanodine receptors that contributes to sex differences in hyperalgesic priming.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The present study demonstrates a mechanism that plays a role in the marked sexual dimorphism observed in a model of the transition to chronic pain, hyperalgesic priming. This mechanism involves a reciprocal interaction between the endoplasmic reticulum receptors, IP₃ and ryanodine, in the induction of priming, regulated by estrogen receptor α in the nociceptor of female rats. The presence of this signaling pathway modulating the susceptibility of nociceptors to develop plasticity may contribute to our understanding of sex differences observed clinically in chronic pain syndromes.

Endoplasmic reticulum-mediated signalling in cellular microdomains

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a prime mediator of cellular signalling due to its functions as an internal cellular store for calcium, as well as a site for synthesis of proteins and lipids. Its peripheral network of sheets and tubules facilitates calcium and lipid signalling, especially in areas of the cell that are more distant to the main cytoplasmic network. Specific membrane proteins shape the peripheral ER architecture and influence the network stability to project into restricted spaces. The signalling microdomains are anatomically separate from the cytoplasm as a whole and exhibit localized protein, ion channel and cytoskeletal element expression. Signalling can also occur between the ER and other organelles, such as the Golgi or mitochondria. Lipids made in the ER membrane can be sent to the Golgi via specialized transfer proteins and specific phospholipid synthases are enriched at ER-mitochondria junctions to more efficiently expedite phospholipid transfer. As a hub for protein and lipid synthesis, a store for intracellular calcium [Ca²⁺ ]_i and a mediator of cellular stress, the ER is an important cellular organelle. Its ability to organize into tubules and project into restricted spaces allows for discrete and temporal signalling, which is important for cellular physiology and organism homoeostasis.

Hindered cytoplasmic diffusion of inositol trisphosphate restricts its cellular range of action

The range of action of intracellular messengers is determined by their rates of diffusion and degradation. Previous measurements in oocyte cytoplasmic extracts indicated that the Ca²⁺-liberating second messenger inositol trisphosphate (IP₃) diffuses with a coefficient (~280 μm² s^-1) similar to that in water, corresponding to a range of action of ~25 μm. Consequently, IP₃ is generally considered a "global" cellular messenger. We reexamined this issue by measuring local IP₃-evoked Ca²⁺ puffs to monitor IP₃ diffusing from spot photorelease in neuroblastoma cells. Fitting these data by numerical simulations yielded a diffusion coefficient (≤10 μm² s^-1) about 30-fold slower than that previously reported. We propose that diffusion of IP₃ in mammalian cells is hindered by binding to immobile, functionally inactive receptors that were diluted in oocyte extracts. The predicted range of action of IP₃ (<5 μm) is thus smaller than the size of typical mammalian cells, indicating that IP₃ should better be considered as a local rather than a global cellular messenger.

IP3 receptors: Take four IP3 to open

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) and ryanodine receptors are the channels responsible for Ca(2+)release from the endoplasmic and sarcoplasmic reticulum. Research inScience Signalingby Alzayadyet al show that all four IP3-binding sites within the tetrameric IP3R must bind IP3before the channel can open, which has important consequences for the distribution of both IP3and IP3R activity within cells.

A comparison of fluorescent Ca²⁺ indicators for imaging local Ca²⁺ signals in cultured cells

Localized subcellular changes in Ca(2+) serve as important cellular signaling elements, regulating processes as diverse as neuronal excitability and gene expression. Studies of cellular Ca(2+) signaling have been greatly facilitated by the availability of fluorescent Ca(2+) indicators. The respective merits of different indicators to monitor bulk changes in cellular Ca(2+) levels have been widely evaluated, but a comprehensive comparison for their use in detecting and analyzing local, subcellular Ca(2+) signals is lacking. Here, we evaluated several fluorescent Ca(2+) indicators in the context of local Ca(2+) signals (puffs) evoked by inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) in cultured human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells, using high-speed video-microscopy. Altogether, nine synthetic Ca(2+) dyes (Fluo-4, Fluo-8, Fluo-8 high affinity, Fluo-8 low affinity, Oregon Green BAPTA-1, Cal-520, Rhod-4, Asante Calcium Red, and X-Rhod-1) and three genetically-encoded Ca(2+)-indicators (GCaMP6-slow, -medium and -fast variants) were tested; criteria include the magnitude, kinetics, signal-to-noise ratio and detection efficiency of local Ca(2+) puffs. Among these, we conclude that Cal-520 is the optimal indicator for detecting and faithfully tracking local events; that Rhod-4 is the red-emitting indicator of choice; and that none of the GCaMP6 variants are well suited for imaging subcellular Ca(2+) signals.

Single-molecule tracking of inositol trisphosphate receptors reveals different motilities and distributions

Puffs are local Ca(2+) signals that arise by Ca(2+) liberation from the endoplasmic reticulum through the concerted opening of tightly clustered inositol trisphosphate receptors/channels (IP3Rs). The locations of puff sites observed by Ca(2+) imaging remain static over several minutes, whereas fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) experiments employing overexpression of fluorescently tagged IP3Rs have shown that the majority of IP3Rs are freely motile. To address this discrepancy, we applied single-molecule imaging to locate and track type 1 IP3Rs tagged with a photoswitchable fluorescent protein and expressed in COS-7 cells. We found that ∼ 70% of the IP3R1 molecules were freely motile, undergoing random walk motility with an apparent diffusion coefficient of ∼ 0.095 μm s(-1), whereas the remaining molecules were essentially immotile. A fraction of the immotile IP3Rs were organized in clusters, with dimensions (a few hundred nanometers across) comparable to those previously estimated for the IP3R clusters underlying functional puff sites. No short-term (seconds) changes in overall motility or in clustering of immotile IP3Rs were apparent following activation of IP3/Ca(2+) signaling. We conclude that stable clusters of small numbers of immotile IP3Rs may underlie local Ca(2+) release sites, whereas the more numerous motile IP3Rs appear to be functionally silent.

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors in the endoplasmic reticulum: A single-channel point of view

As an intracellular Ca(2+) release channel at the endoplasmic reticulum membrane, the ubiquitous inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3) receptor (InsP3R) plays a crucial role in the generation, propagation and regulation of intracellular Ca(2+) signals that regulate numerous physiological and pathophysiological processes. This review provides a concise account of the fundamental single-channel properties of the InsP3R channel: its conductance properties and its regulation by InsP3 and Ca(2+), its physiological ligands, studied using nuclear patch clamp electrophysiology.

An algorithm for automated detection, localization and measurement of local calcium signals from camera-based imaging

Local Ca(2+) transients such as puffs and sparks form the building blocks of cellular Ca(2+) signaling in numerous cell types. They have traditionally been studied by linescan confocal microscopy, but advances in TIRF microscopy together with improved electron-multiplied CCD (EMCCD) cameras now enable rapid (>500 frames s(-1)) imaging of subcellular Ca(2+) signals with high spatial resolution in two dimensions. This approach yields vastly more information (ca. 1 Gb min(-1)) than linescan imaging, rendering visual identification and analysis of local events imaged both laborious and subject to user bias. Here we describe a routine to rapidly automate identification and analysis of local Ca(2+) events. This features an intuitive graphical user-interfaces and runs under Matlab and the open-source Python software. The underlying algorithm features spatial and temporal noise filtering to reliably detect even small events in the presence of noisy and fluctuating baselines; localizes sites of Ca(2+) release with sub-pixel resolution; facilitates user review and editing of data; and outputs time-sequences of fluorescence ratio signals for identified event sites along with Excel-compatible tables listing amplitudes and kinetics of events.

Imaging large cohorts of single ion channels and their activity

As calcium is the most important signaling molecule in neurons and secretory cells, amongst many other cell types, it follows that an understanding of calcium channels and their regulation of exocytosis is of vital importance. Calcium imaging using calcium dyes such as Fluo3, or FRET-based dyes that have been used widely has provided invaluable information, which combined with modeling has estimated the subtypes of channels responsible for triggering the exocytotic machinery as well as inferences about the relative distances away from vesicle fusion sites these molecules adopt. Importantly, new super-resolution microscopy techniques, combined with novel Ca(2+) indicators and imaginative imaging approaches can now define directly the nano-scale locations of very large cohorts of single channel molecules in relation to single vesicles. With combinations of these techniques the activity of individual channels can be visualized and quantified using novel Ca(2+) indicators. Fluorescently labeled specific channel toxins can also be used to localize endogenous assembled channel tetramers. Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy and other single-photon-resolution spectroscopic approaches offer the possibility to quantify protein-protein interactions between populations of channels and the SNARE protein machinery for the first time. Together with simultaneous electrophysiology, this battery of quantitative imaging techniques has the potential to provide unprecedented detail describing the locations, dynamic behaviors, interactions, and conductance activities of many thousands of channel molecules and vesicles in living cells.

Temperature dependence of IP3-mediated local and global Ca2+ signals

We examined the effect of temperature (12-40°C) on local and global Ca2+ signals mediated by inositol trisphosphate receptor/channels (IP3R) in human neuroblastoma (SH-SY5Y) cells. The amplitudes and spatial spread of local signals arising from single IP3R (blips) and clusters of IP3R (puffs) showed little temperature dependence, whereas their kinetics (durations and latencies) were markedly accelerated by increasing temperature. In contrast, the amplitude of global Ca2+ waves increased appreciably at lower temperatures, probably as a result of the longer duration of IP(3)R channel opening. Several parameters, including puff and blip durations, puff latency and frequency, and frequency of repetitive Ca2+ waves, showed a biphasic temperature dependence on Arrhenius plots. In all cases the transition temperature occurred at ∼25°C, possibly reflecting a phase transition in the lipids of the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. Although the IP3-evoked Ca2+ signals were qualitatively similar at 25°C and 36°C, one should consider the temperature sensitivity of IP3-mediated signal amplitudes when extrapolating from room temperature to physiological temperature. Conversely, further cooling may be advantageous to improve the optical resolution of channel gating kinetics.

'Eventless' InsP3-dependent SR-Ca2+ release affecting atrial Ca2+ sparks

Augmented inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (InsP3R) function has been linked to a variety of cardiac pathologies, including cardiac arrhythmia. The contribution of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-induced Ca(2+) release (IP3ICR) in excitation-contraction coupling (ECC) under physiological conditions, as well as under cellular remodelling, remains controversial. Here we test the hypothesis that local IP3ICR directly affects ryanodine receptor (RyR) function and subsequent Ca(2+)-induced Ca(2+) release in atrial myocytes. IP3ICR was evoked by UV-flash photolysis of caged InsP3 under whole-cell configuration of the voltage-clamp technique in atrial myocytes isolated from C57/BL6 mice. Photolytic release of InsP3 was accompanied by a significant increase in the Ca(2+) release event frequency (4.14 ± 0.72 vs. 6.20 ± 0.76 events (100 μm)(-1) s(-1)). These individual photolytically triggered Ca(2+) release events were identified as Ca(2+) sparks, which originated from RyR openings. This was verified by Ca(2+) spark analysis and pharmacological separation between RyR and InsP3R-dependent sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)-Ca(2+) release (2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate, xestospongin C, tetracaine). Significant SR-Ca(2+) flux but eventless SR-Ca(2+) release through InsP3R were characterized using SR-Ca(2+) leak/SR-Ca(2+) load measurements. These results strongly support the idea that IP3ICR can effectively modulate RyR openings and Ca(2+) spark probability. We conclude that eventless and highly efficient InsP3-dependent SR-Ca(2+) flux is the main mechanism of functional cross-talk between InsP3Rs and RyRs, which may be an important factor in the modulation of ECC sensitivity.

The probability of triggering calcium puffs is linearly related to the number of inositol trisphosphate receptors in a cluster

Puffs are local Ca(2+) signals that arise by Ca(2+) liberation from the endoplasmic reticulum through concerted opening of tightly clustered inositol trisphosphate receptor/channels (IP(3)R). They serve both local signaling functions and trigger global Ca(2+) waves. The numbers of functional IP(3)R within clusters differ appreciably between different puff sites, and we investigated how the probability of puff occurrence varies with cluster size. We imaged puffs in SH-SY5Y cells using total internal fluorescence microscopy, and estimated cluster sizes from the magnitude of the largest puff observed at each site relative to the signal from a single channel. We find that the initial triggering rate of puffs following photorelease of IP(3), and the average frequency of subsequent repetitive puffs, vary about linearly with cluster size. These data accord well with stochastic simulations in which opening of any individual IP(3)R channel within a cluster triggers a puff via Ca(2+)-induced Ca(2+) release. An important consequence is that the signaling power of a puff site (average amount of Ca(2+) released per puff × puff frequency) varies about the square of cluster size, implying that large clusters contribute disproportionately to cellular signaling and, because of their higher puff frequency, preferentially act as pacemakers to initiate Ca(2+) waves.

Intracellular calcium signals display an avalanche-like behavior over multiple lengthscales

Many natural phenomena display “self-organized criticality” (SOC), (Bak et al., 1987). This refers to spatially extended systems for which patterns of activity characterized by different lengthscales can occur with a probability density that follows a power law with pattern size. Differently from power laws at phase transitions, systems displaying SOC do not need the tuning of an external parameter. Here we analyze intracellular calcium (Ca²⁺) signals, a key component of the signaling toolkit of almost any cell type. Ca²⁺ signals can either be spatially restricted (local) or propagate throughout the cell (global). Different models have suggested that the transition from local to global signals is similar to that of directed percolation. Directed percolation has been associated, in turn, to the appearance of SOC. In this paper we discuss these issues within the framework of simple models of Ca²⁺ signal propagation. We also analyze the size distribution of local signals (“puffs”) observed in immature Xenopus Laevis oocytes. The puff amplitude distribution obtained from observed local signals is not Gaussian with a noticeable fraction of large size events. The experimental distribution of puff areas in the spatio-temporal record of the image has a long tail that is approximately log-normal. The distribution can also be fitted with a power law relationship albeit with a smaller goodness of fit. The power law behavior is encountered within a simple model that includes some coupling among individual signals for a wide range of parameter values. An analysis of the model shows that a global elevation of the Ca²⁺ concentration plays a major role in determining whether the puff size distribution is long-tailed or not. This suggests that Ca²⁺-clearing from the cytosol is key to determine whether IP₃-mediated Ca²⁺ signals can display a SOC-like behavior or not.

[Calcium signaling in T lymphocytes]

Calcium signaling is essential for all the functions of T lymphocytes, including those of Th2 cells. Th2 lymphocytes producing interleukins 4, 5 and 13 orchestrate allergic diseases including asthma. T-cell activation induces an influx of Ca(2+) from the external medium through ORAI calcium channels although other calcium channels are likely to be involved. Among them, voltage-gated calcium (Ca(v)1) channels have been reported in some T-cell subsets including Th2 cells. The inhibition of Ca(v)1 channels abrogates T-cell receptor-driven calcium influx and interleukin production by Th2 cells. From a therapeutic point of view, the inhibition of Ca(v)1 channels prevents Th2-dependent experimental allergic asthma. In this review, we will discuss the singularities of calcium responses depending upon the T-cell subset and its state of activation.

Dynamic clustering of IP3 receptors by IP3

The versatility of Ca2+ as an intracellular messenger stems largely from the impressive, but complex, spatiotemporal organization of the Ca2+ signals. For example, the latter when initiated by IP3 (inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate) in many cells manifest hierarchical recruitment of elementary Ca2+ release events ('blips' and then 'puffs') en route to global regenerative Ca2+ waves as the cellular IP3 concentration rises. The spacing of IP3Rs (IP3 receptors) and their regulation by Ca2+ are key determinants of these spatially organized Ca2+ signals, but neither is adequately understood. IP3Rs have been proposed to be pre-assembled into clusters, but their composition, geometry and whether clustering affects IP3R behaviour are unknown. Using patch-clamp recording from the outer nuclear envelope of DT40 cells expressing rat IP3R1 or IP3R3, we have recently shown that low concentrations of IP3 cause IP3Rs to aggregate rapidly and reversibly into small clusters of approximately four IP3Rs. At resting cytosolic Ca2+ concentrations, clustered IP3Rs open independently, but with lower open probability, shorter open duration and lesser IP3-sensitivity than lone IP3Rs. This inhibitory influence of clustering on IP3R is reversed when the [Ca2+]i (cytosolic free Ca2+ concentration) increases. The gating of clustered IP3Rs exposed to increased [Ca2+]i is coupled: they are more likely to open and close together, and their simultaneous openings are prolonged. Dynamic clustering of IP3Rs by IP3 thus exposes them to local Ca2+ rises and increases their propensity for a CICR (Ca2+-induced Ca2+ rise), thereby facilitating hierarchical recruitment of the elementary events that underlie all IP3-evoked Ca2+ signals.

Multi-scale data-driven modeling and observation of calcium puffs

The spatiotemporal dynamics of elementary Ca(2+) release events, such as "blips" and "puffs" shapes the hierarchal Ca(2+) signaling in many cell types. Despite being the building blocks of Ca(2+) patterning, the mechanism responsible for the observed properties of puffs, especially their termination is incompletely understood. In this paper, we employ a data-driven approach to gain insights into the complex dynamics of blips and puffs. We use a model of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3)) receptor (IP(3)R) derived directly from single channel patch clamp data taken at 10 μM concentration of IP(3) to simulate calcium puffs. We first reproduce recent observations regarding puffs and blips and then investigate the mechanism of puff termination. Our model suggests that during a puff, IP(3)R s proceed around a loop through kinetic states from "rest" to "open" to "inhibited" and back to "rest". A puff terminates because of self-inhibition. Based on our simulations, we rule out the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca(2+) depletion as a possible cause for puff termination. The data-driven approach also enables us to estimate the current through a single IP(3)R and the peak Ca(2+) concentration near the channel pore.

Cooperative and stochastic calcium releases from multiple calcium puff sites generate calcium microdomains in intact Hela cells

Ca(2+) microdomains or locally restricted Ca(2+) increases in the cell have recently been reported to regulate many essential physiological events. Ca(2+) increases through the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3)) receptor (IP(3)R)/Ca(2+) release channels contribute to the formation of a class of such Ca(2+) microdomains, which were often observed and referred to as Ca(2+) puffs in their isolated states. In this report, we visualized IP(3)-evoked Ca(2+) microdomains in histamine-stimulated intact HeLa cells using a total internal reflection fluorescence microscope, and quantitatively characterized the spatial profile by fitting recorded images to a two-dimensional Gaussian distribution. Ca(2+) concentration profiles were marginally spatially anisotropic, with the size increasing linearly even after the amplitude began to decline. We found the event centroid drifted with an apparent diffusion coefficient of 4.20 ± 0.50 μm(2)/s, which is significantly larger than those estimated for IP(3)Rs. The sites of maximal Ca(2+) increase, rather than initiation or termination sites, were detected repeatedly at the same location. These results indicate that Ca(2+) microdomains in intact HeLa cell are generated from spatially distributed multiple IP(3)R clusters or Ca(2+) puff sites, rather than a single IP(3)R cluster reported in cells loaded with Ca(2+) buffers.

Intracellular Ca(2+) channels - a growing community

The Ca(2+) signals that control almost every cellular activity are generated by regulating Ca(2+) transport, usually via Ca(2+)-permeable channels, across the plasma membrane or the membranes of intracellular organelles. The most widespread and best understood of the intracellular Ca(2+) channels are inositol trisphosphate receptors (IP(3)R) and ryanodine receptors, most of which are expressed in the endoplasmic or sarcoplasmic reticulum. However, accumulating evidence suggests physiological roles for many additional Ca(2+) channels in both ER and other intracellular organelles. Interactions between these channels, whether mediated by Ca(2+) itself or interactions between proteins, is a recurrent feature of the Ca(2+) signals evoked by physiological stimuli. We focus on two specific examples, clustering of IP(3)Rs and NAADP (nicotinic acid dinucleotide phosphate)-evoked Ca(2+) release from endo-lysosomes, to illustrate the diversity of Ca(2+) channels and the interplay between them.

Ca(2+) signalling by IP(3) receptors

The Ca(2) (+) signals evoked by inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3)) are built from elementary Ca(2) (+) release events involving progressive recruitment of IP(3) receptors (IP(3)R), intracellular Ca(2) (+) channels that are expressed in almost all animal cells. The smallest events ('blips') result from opening of single IP(3)R. Larger events ('puffs') reflect the near-synchronous opening of a small cluster of IP(3)R. These puffs become more frequent as the stimulus intensity increases and they eventually trigger regenerative Ca(2) (+) waves that propagate across the cell. This hierarchical recruitment of IP(3)R is important in allowing Ca(2) (+) signals to be delivered locally to specific target proteins or more globally to the entire cell. Co-regulation of IP(3)R by Ca(2) (+) and IP(3), the ability of a single IP(3)R rapidly to mediate a large efflux of Ca(2) (+) from the endoplasmic reticulum, and the assembly of IP(3)R into clusters are key features that allow IP(3)R to propagate Ca(2) (+) signals regeneratively. We review these properties of IP(3)R and the structural basis of IP(3)R behavior.