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González-Matos M, Aguado ME, Izquierdo M, Monzote L, González-Bacerio J. Compounds with potentialities as novel chemotherapeutic agents in leishmaniasis at preclinical level. Exp Parasitol 2024; 260:108747. [PMID: 38518969 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2024.108747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/24/2024]
Abstract
Leishmaniasis are neglected infectious diseases caused by kinetoplastid protozoan parasites from the genus Leishmania. These sicknesses are present mainly in tropical regions and almost 1 million new cases are reported each year. The absence of vaccines, as well as the high cost, toxicity or resistance to the current drugs determines the necessity of new treatments against these pathologies. In this review, several compounds with potentialities as new antileishmanial drugs are presented. The discussion is restricted to the preclinical level and molecules are organized according to their chemical nature, source and molecular targets. In this manner, we present antimicrobial peptides, flavonoids, withanolides, 8-aminoquinolines, compounds from Leish-Box, pyrazolopyrimidines, and inhibitors of tubulin polymerization/depolymerization, topoisomerase IB, proteases, pteridine reductase, N-myristoyltransferase, as well as enzymes involved in polyamine metabolism, response against oxidative stress, signaling pathways, and sterol biosynthesis. This work is a contribution to the general knowledge of these compounds as antileishmanial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maikel González-Matos
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Calle 25 #455 Entre I y J, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Mirtha Elisa Aguado
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Calle 25 #455 Entre I y J, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Maikel Izquierdo
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Calle 25 #455 Entre I y J, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Lianet Monzote
- Department of Parasitology, Center for Research, Diagnosis and Reference, Tropical Medicine Institute "Pedro Kourí", Autopista Novia Del Mediodía Km 6½, La Lisa, La Habana, Cuba.
| | - Jorge González-Bacerio
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Calle 25 #455 Entre I y J, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba; Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, Calle 25 #455 Entre I y J, Vedado, La Habana, Cuba.
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2
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Hilton TA, Leach AG, McKay AP, Watson AJB. Accessing Rare α-Heterocyclic Aziridines via Brønsted Acid-catalyzed Michael Addition/Annulation: Scope, Limitations, and Mechanism. Chemistry 2024; 30:e202303993. [PMID: 38315627 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202303993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
We report an approach to the diastereoselective synthesis of 1,2-disubstituted heterocyclic aziridines. A Brønsted acid-catalyzed conjugate addition of anilines to trisubstituted heterocyclic chloroalkenes provides an intermediate 1,2-chloroamine. Diastereocontrol was found to vary significantly with solvent selection, with computational modelling confirming selective, spontaneous fragmentation in the presence of trace acids, proceeding through a pseudo-cyclic, protonated intermediate and transition state. These chloroamines can then be converted to the aziridine by treatment with LiHMDS with high stereochemical fidelity. This solvent-induced stereochemical enrichment thereby enables an efficient route to rare cis-aziridines with high dr. The scope, limitations, and mechanistic origins of selectivity are also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy A Hilton
- EaStCHEM, School of Chemistry, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9ST, U.K
| | - Andrew G Leach
- School of Health Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, U.K
| | - Aidan P McKay
- EaStCHEM, School of Chemistry, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9ST, U.K
| | - Allan J B Watson
- EaStCHEM, School of Chemistry, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9ST, U.K
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3
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Xie Z, Zhao M, Yan C, Kong W, Lan F, Zhao S, Yang Q, Bai Z, Qing H, Ni J. Cathepsin B in programmed cell death machinery: mechanisms of execution and regulatory pathways. Cell Death Dis 2023; 14:255. [PMID: 37031185 PMCID: PMC10082344 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-023-05786-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 04/10/2023]
Abstract
Cathepsin B (CatB), a cysteine protease, is primarily localized within subcellular endosomal and lysosomal compartments. It is involved in the turnover of intracellular and extracellular proteins. Interest is growing in CatB due to its diverse roles in physiological and pathological processes. In functional defective tissues, programmed cell death (PCD) is one of the regulable fundamental mechanisms mediated by CatB, including apoptosis, pyroptosis, ferroptosis, necroptosis, and autophagic cell death. However, CatB-mediated PCD is responsible for disease progression under pathological conditions. In this review, we provide an overview of the critical roles and regulatory pathways of CatB in different types of PCD, and discuss the possibility of CatB as an attractive target in multiple diseases. We also summarize current gaps in the understanding of the involvement of CatB in PCD to highlight future avenues for research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Xie
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, 100081, Beijing, China
| | - Mengyuan Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, 100081, Beijing, China
| | - Chengxiang Yan
- Research Center for Resource Peptide Drugs, Shaanxi Engineering and Technological Research Center for Conversation and Utilization of Regional Biological Resources, Yan'an University, Yan'an, 716000, China
| | - Wei Kong
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, 100081, Beijing, China
| | - Fei Lan
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, 100081, Beijing, China
| | - Shuxuan Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, 100081, Beijing, China
| | - Qinghu Yang
- Research Center for Resource Peptide Drugs, Shaanxi Engineering and Technological Research Center for Conversation and Utilization of Regional Biological Resources, Yan'an University, Yan'an, 716000, China
| | - Zhantao Bai
- Research Center for Resource Peptide Drugs, Shaanxi Engineering and Technological Research Center for Conversation and Utilization of Regional Biological Resources, Yan'an University, Yan'an, 716000, China.
- Yan'an Key Laboratory for Neural Immuno-Tumor and Stem Cell and Engineering and Technological Research Center for Natural Peptide Drugs, Yan'an, 716000, China.
| | - Hong Qing
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, 100081, Beijing, China.
| | - Junjun Ni
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, Department of Biology, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, 100081, Beijing, China.
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4
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Romano PS, Akematsu T, Besteiro S, Bindschedler A, Carruthers VB, Chahine Z, Coppens I, Descoteaux A, Alberto Duque TL, He CY, Heussler V, Le Roch KG, Li FJ, de Menezes JPB, Menna-Barreto RFS, Mottram JC, Schmuckli-Maurer J, Turk B, Tavares Veras PS, Salassa BN, Vanrell MC. Autophagy in protists and their hosts: When, how and why? AUTOPHAGY REPORTS 2023; 2:2149211. [PMID: 37064813 PMCID: PMC10104450 DOI: 10.1080/27694127.2022.2149211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Abstract
Pathogenic protists are a group of organisms responsible for causing a variety of human diseases including malaria, sleeping sickness, Chagas disease, leishmaniasis, and toxoplasmosis, among others. These diseases, which affect more than one billion people globally, mainly the poorest populations, are characterized by severe chronic stages and the lack of effective antiparasitic treatment. Parasitic protists display complex life-cycles and go through different cellular transformations in order to adapt to the different hosts they live in. Autophagy, a highly conserved cellular degradation process, has emerged as a key mechanism required for these differentiation processes, as well as other functions that are crucial to parasite fitness. In contrast to yeasts and mammals, protist autophagy is characterized by a modest number of conserved autophagy-related proteins (ATGs) that, even though, can drive the autophagosome formation and degradation. In addition, during their intracellular cycle, the interaction of these pathogens with the host autophagy system plays a crucial role resulting in a beneficial or harmful effect that is important for the outcome of the infection. In this review, we summarize the current state of knowledge on autophagy and other related mechanisms in pathogenic protists and their hosts. We sought to emphasize when, how, and why this process takes place, and the effects it may have on the parasitic cycle. A better understanding of the significance of autophagy for the protist life-cycle will potentially be helpful to design novel anti-parasitic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Silvia Romano
- Laboratorio de Biología de Trypanosoma cruzi y de la célula hospedadora. Instituto de Histología y Embriología de Mendoza. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. (IHEM-CONICET-UNCUYO). Facultad de Ciencias Médicas. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Av. Libertador 80 (5500), Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Takahiko Akematsu
- Department of Biosciences, College of Humanities and Sciences, Nihon University, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | | | - Vern B Carruthers
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Zeinab Chahine
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Isabelle Coppens
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology. Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology. Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute. Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health. Baltimore 21205, MD, USA
| | - Albert Descoteaux
- Centre Armand-Frappier Santé Biotechnologie, Institut national de la recherche scientifique, Laval, QC
| | - Thabata Lopes Alberto Duque
- Autophagy Inflammation and Metabolism Center, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA; Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Cynthia Y He
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Volker Heussler
- Institute of Cell Biology.University of Bern. Baltzerstr. 4 3012 Bern
| | - Karine G Le Roch
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Systems Biology, University of California Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Feng-Jun Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | | | | | - Jeremy C Mottram
- York Biomedical Research Institute, Department of Biology, University of York, York, UK
| | | | - Boris Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jožef Stefan Institute, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Patricia Sampaio Tavares Veras
- Laboratory of Host-Parasite Interaction and Epidemiology, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Fiocruz-Bahia
- National Institute of Science and Technology of Tropical Diseases - National Council for Scientific Research and Development (CNPq)
| | - Betiana Nebai Salassa
- Laboratorio de Biología de Trypanosoma cruzi y de la célula hospedadora. Instituto de Histología y Embriología de Mendoza. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. (IHEM-CONICET-UNCUYO). Facultad de Ciencias Médicas. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Av. Libertador 80 (5500), Mendoza, Argentina
| | - María Cristina Vanrell
- Laboratorio de Biología de Trypanosoma cruzi y de la célula hospedadora. Instituto de Histología y Embriología de Mendoza. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. (IHEM-CONICET-UNCUYO). Facultad de Ciencias Médicas. Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Av. Libertador 80 (5500), Mendoza, Argentina
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5
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Al-Bari AA. Inhibition of autolysosomes by repurposing drugs as a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of cancers. ALL LIFE 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/26895293.2022.2078894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Abdul Alim Al-Bari
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, Bangladesh
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6
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Pedra-Rezende Y, Macedo IS, Midlej V, Mariante RM, Menna-Barreto RFS. Different Drugs, Same End: Ultrastructural Hallmarks of Autophagy in Pathogenic Protozoa. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:856686. [PMID: 35422792 PMCID: PMC9002357 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.856686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Protozoan parasites interact with a wide variety of organisms ranging from bacteria to humans, representing one of the most common causes of parasitic diseases and an important public health problem affecting hundreds of millions of people worldwide. The current treatment for these parasitic diseases remains unsatisfactory and, in some cases, very limited. Treatment limitations together with the increased resistance of the pathogens represent a challenge for the improvement of the patient’s quality of life. The continuous search for alternative preclinical drugs is mandatory, but the mechanisms of action of several of these compounds have not been described. Electron microscopy is a powerful tool for the identification of drug targets in almost all cellular models. Interestingly, ultrastructural analysis showed that several classes of antiparasitic compounds induced similar autophagic phenotypes in trypanosomatids, trichomonadids, and apicomplexan parasites as well as in Giardia intestinalis and Entamoeba spp. with the presence of an increased number of autophagosomes as well as remarkable endoplasmic reticulum profiles surrounding different organelles. Autophagy is a physiological process of eukaryotes that maintains homeostasis by the self-digestion of nonfunctional organelles and/or macromolecules, limiting redundant and damaged cellular components. Here, we focus on protozoan autophagy to subvert drug effects, discussing its importance for successful chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasmin Pedra-Rezende
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Isabela S Macedo
- Laboratório de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Victor Midlej
- Laboratório de Ultraestrutura Celular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Rafael M Mariante
- Laboratório de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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7
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The ultimate fate determinants of drug induced cell-death mechanisms in Trypanosomatids. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-DRUGS AND DRUG RESISTANCE 2021; 15:81-91. [PMID: 33601284 PMCID: PMC7900639 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2021.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Chemotherapy constitutes a major part of modern-day therapy for infectious and chronic diseases. A drug is said to be effective if it can inhibit its target, induce stress, and thereby trigger an array of cell death pathways in the form of programmed cell death, autophagy, necrosis, etc. Chemotherapy is the only treatment choice against trypanosomatid diseases like Leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, and sleeping sickness. Anti-trypanosomatid drugs can induce various cell death phenotypes depending upon the drug dose and growth stage of the parasites. The mechanisms and pathways triggering cell death in Trypanosomatids serve to help identify potential targets for the development of effective anti-trypanosomatids. Studies show that the key proteins involved in cell death of trypanosomatids are metacaspases, Endonuclease G, Apoptosis-Inducing Factor, cysteine proteases, serine proteases, antioxidant systems, etc. Unlike higher eukaryotes, these organisms either lack the complete set of effectors involved in cell death pathways, or are yet to be deciphered. A detailed summary of the existing knowledge of different drug-induced cell death pathways would help identify the lacuna in each of these pathways and therefore open new avenues for research and thereby new therapeutic targets to explore. The cell death pathway associated complexities in metazoans are absent in trypanosomatids; hence this summary can also help understand the trigger points as well as cross-talk between these pathways. Here we provide an in-depth overview of the existing knowledge of these drug-induced trypanosomatid cell death pathways, describe their associated physiological changes, and suggest potential interconnections amongst them.
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8
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Cardozo Pinto de Arruda C, de Jesus Hardoim D, Silva Rizk Y, da Silva Freitas de Souza C, Zaverucha do Valle T, Bento Carvalho D, Nosomi Taniwaki N, de Morais Baroni AC, da Silva Calabrese K. A Triazole Hybrid of Neolignans as a Potential Antileishmanial Agent by Triggering Mitochondrial Dysfunction. Molecules 2019; 25:molecules25010037. [PMID: 31861910 PMCID: PMC6983227 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25010037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the search for new compounds with antileishmanial activity, we synthesized a triazole hybrid analogue of the neolignans grandisin and machilin G (LASQUIM 25), which was previously found highly active against both promastigotes and intracellular amastigote forms of Leishmania amazonensis. In this work, we investigated the leishmanicidal effects of LASQUIM 25 to identify the mechanisms involved in the cell death of L. amazonensis promastigotes. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis showed marked effects of LASQUIM 25 (IC50 = 7.2 µM) on the morphology of promastigote forms, notably on mitochondria. The direct action of the triazole derivative on the parasite was noticed over time from 2 h to 48 h, and cells displayed several ultrastructural alterations characteristic of apoptotic cells. Also, flow cytometric analysis (FACS) after TMRE staining detected changes in mitochondrial membrane potential after LASQUIM 25 treatment (64.83% labeling versus 83.38% labeling in nontreated cells). On the other hand, FACS after PI staining in 24 h-treatment showed a slight alteration in the integrity of the cell membrane, a necrotic event (16.76% necrotic cells versus 3.19% staining in live parasites). An abnormal secretion of lipids was observed, suggesting an exocytic activity. Another striking finding was the presence of autophagy-related lysosome-like vacuoles, suggesting an autophagic cell death that may arise as consequence of mitochondrial stress. Taken together, these results suggest that LASQUIM 25 leishmanicidal mechanisms involve some degree of mitochondrial dysregulation, already evidenced by the treatment with the IC50 of this compound. This effect may be due to the presence of a methylenedioxy group originated from machilin G, whose toxicity has been associated with the capacity to generate electrophilic intermediates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Cardozo Pinto de Arruda
- Laboratório de Parasitologia Humana, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, 79070-900 Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brasil
- Correspondence: (C.C.P.d.A.); (K.d.S.C.); Tel.: +55-67-3345-7369 (C.C.P.d.A.); +55-21-2562-1879 (K.d.S.C.)
| | - Daiana de Jesus Hardoim
- Laboratório de Imunomodulação e Protozoologia (LIMP), Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ), 21040-360 Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil; (D.d.J.H.); (Y.S.R.); (C.d.S.F.d.S.); (T.Z.d.V.)
| | - Yasmin Silva Rizk
- Laboratório de Imunomodulação e Protozoologia (LIMP), Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ), 21040-360 Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil; (D.d.J.H.); (Y.S.R.); (C.d.S.F.d.S.); (T.Z.d.V.)
| | - Celeste da Silva Freitas de Souza
- Laboratório de Imunomodulação e Protozoologia (LIMP), Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ), 21040-360 Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil; (D.d.J.H.); (Y.S.R.); (C.d.S.F.d.S.); (T.Z.d.V.)
| | - Tânia Zaverucha do Valle
- Laboratório de Imunomodulação e Protozoologia (LIMP), Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ), 21040-360 Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil; (D.d.J.H.); (Y.S.R.); (C.d.S.F.d.S.); (T.Z.d.V.)
| | - Diego Bento Carvalho
- Laboratório de Síntese e Química Medicinal (LASQUIM), Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Alimentos e Nutrição, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, 79070-900 Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brasil; (D.B.C.); (A.C.d.M.B.)
| | - Noemi Nosomi Taniwaki
- Núcleo de Microscopia Eletrônica, Instituto Adolfo Lutz, 01246-000 São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil;
| | - Adriano Cesar de Morais Baroni
- Laboratório de Síntese e Química Medicinal (LASQUIM), Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Alimentos e Nutrição, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, 79070-900 Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brasil; (D.B.C.); (A.C.d.M.B.)
| | - Kátia da Silva Calabrese
- Laboratório de Imunomodulação e Protozoologia (LIMP), Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ), 21040-360 Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil; (D.d.J.H.); (Y.S.R.); (C.d.S.F.d.S.); (T.Z.d.V.)
- Correspondence: (C.C.P.d.A.); (K.d.S.C.); Tel.: +55-67-3345-7369 (C.C.P.d.A.); +55-21-2562-1879 (K.d.S.C.)
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9
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Araújo MV, Queiroz AC, Silva JFM, Silva AE, Silva JKS, Silva GR, Silva ECO, Souza ST, Fonseca EJS, Camara CA, Silva TMS, Alexandre-Moreira MS. Flavonoids induce cell death in Leishmania amazonensis: in vitro characterization by flow cytometry and Raman spectroscopy. Analyst 2019; 144:5232-5244. [PMID: 31360935 DOI: 10.1039/c9an00948e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Leishmaniasis comprises a group of infectious diseases with worldwide distribution, of which both the visceral and cutaneous forms are caused by Leishmania parasites. In the absence of vaccines, efficacious chemotherapy remains the basis for leishmaniasis control. The available drugs are expensive and associated with several secondary adverse effects. Due to these limitations, the development of new antileishmanial compounds is imperative, and plants offer various perspectives in this regard. The present study evaluated the in vitro leishmanicidal activity of flavonoids isolated from Solanum paludosum Moric. and investigated the mechanisms of cell death induced by them. These compounds were evaluated in vitro for their antileishmanial activity against Leishmania amazonensis promastigotes and they showed prominent leishmanicidal activity. The EtOAc fraction, gossypetin 3,7,8,4'-tetra-O-methyl ether (1), and kaempferol 3,7-di-O-methyl ether (3) were selected to be used in an in vitro assay against L. amazonensis amastigotes and cell death assays. The flavonoids (1) and (3) presented significant activity against L. amazonensis amastigotes, exhibiting the IC50 values of 23.3 ± 4.5 μM, 34.0 ± 9.6 μM, and 10.5 ± 2.5 μM for the EtOAc fraction, (1), and (3), respectively, without toxic effects to the host cells. Moreover, (1) and (3) induced blocked cell cycle progression at the G1/S transition, ultimately leading to G1/G0 arrest. Flavonoid (3) also induced autophagy. Using Raman spectroscopy in conjunction with principal component analysis, the biochemical changes in the cellular components induced by flavonoids (1) and (3) were presented. The obtained results indicated that the mechanisms of action of (1) and (3) occurred through different routes. The results support that the flavonoids derived from S. paludosum can become lead molecules for the design of antileishmanial prototypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgana V Araújo
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Immunity, Institute of Biological Sciences and Health, Federal University of Alagoas, 57020-720, Maceió, Alagoas, Brazil.
| | - Aline C Queiroz
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Immunity, Institute of Biological Sciences and Health, Federal University of Alagoas, 57020-720, Maceió, Alagoas, Brazil.
| | - João F M Silva
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Immunity, Institute of Biological Sciences and Health, Federal University of Alagoas, 57020-720, Maceió, Alagoas, Brazil.
| | - Amanda E Silva
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Immunity, Institute of Biological Sciences and Health, Federal University of Alagoas, 57020-720, Maceió, Alagoas, Brazil.
| | - João K S Silva
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Immunity, Institute of Biological Sciences and Health, Federal University of Alagoas, 57020-720, Maceió, Alagoas, Brazil.
| | - Girliane R Silva
- Phytochemical Bioprospecting Laboratory, Chemistry Department, Federal Rural University of Pernambuco, 52171-900, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Elaine C O Silva
- Optics and Nanoscopy Group, Institute of Physics, Federal University of Alagoas, 57072-970, Maceió, Alagoas, Brazil
| | - Samuel T Souza
- Optics and Nanoscopy Group, Institute of Physics, Federal University of Alagoas, 57072-970, Maceió, Alagoas, Brazil
| | - Eduardo J S Fonseca
- Optics and Nanoscopy Group, Institute of Physics, Federal University of Alagoas, 57072-970, Maceió, Alagoas, Brazil
| | - Celso A Camara
- Phytochemical Bioprospecting Laboratory, Chemistry Department, Federal Rural University of Pernambuco, 52171-900, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Tania M S Silva
- Phytochemical Bioprospecting Laboratory, Chemistry Department, Federal Rural University of Pernambuco, 52171-900, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Magna S Alexandre-Moreira
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Immunity, Institute of Biological Sciences and Health, Federal University of Alagoas, 57020-720, Maceió, Alagoas, Brazil.
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10
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Semicarbazone derivatives as promising therapeutic alternatives in leishmaniasis. Exp Parasitol 2019; 201:57-66. [PMID: 31004571 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2019.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2018] [Revised: 03/09/2019] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
In the present study, we investigated the in vitro and in vivo leishmanicidal activity of synthetic compounds, containing a semicarbazone scaffold as a peptide mimetic framework. The leishmanicidal effect against amastigotes of Leishmania amazonensis was also evaluated at concentration of 100 μM-0.01 nM. The derivatives 2e, 2f, 2g and 1g, beyond the standards miltefosine and pentamidine, significantly diminished the number of L. amazonensis amastigotes in macrophages. These derivatives were also active against amastigotes of L. braziliensis. As 2g presented potent leishmanicidal activity against the amastigotes of L. amazonensis in macrophages, we also investigated the in vivo leishmanicidal activity of this compound against L. amazonensis. Approximately 105L. amazonensis promastigotes were subcutaneously inoculated into the dermis of the right ear of BALB/c mice, which were subsequently treated with 2g (p.o. or i.p.), miltefosine (p.o.) or glucantime (i.p.) at 30 μmol/kg/day x 28 days. Thus, a similar reduction in the lesion size was observed after the administration of 2g through oral (63.7 ± 10.1%) and intraperitoneal (61.8 ± 3.7%) routes. A larger effect was observed after treatment with miltefosine (97.7 ± 0.4%), and glucantime did not exhibit activity at the dose administered. With respect to the ear parasite load, 2g diminished the number of parasites by p.o. (30.5 ± 5.1%) and i.p. (33.3 ± 4.3%) administration. In addition, 2g induced in vitro apoptosis, autophagy and cell cycle alterations on L. amazonensis promastigotes. In summary, the derivative 2g might represent a lead candidate for antileishmanial drugs, as this compound displayed pronounced leishmanicidal activity.
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Fey P, Chartomatsidou R, Kiefer W, Mottram JC, Kersten C, Schirmeister T. New aziridine-based inhibitors of cathepsin L-like cysteine proteases with selectivity for the Leishmania cysteine protease LmCPB2.8. Eur J Med Chem 2018; 156:587-597. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Revised: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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De Luca L, Ferro S, Buemi MR, Monforte AM, Gitto R, Schirmeister T, Maes L, Rescifina A, Micale N. Discovery of benzimidazole-based Leishmania mexicana cysteine protease CPB2.8ΔCTE inhibitors as potential therapeutics for leishmaniasis. Chem Biol Drug Des 2018; 92:1585-1596. [PMID: 29729080 DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.13326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2017] [Revised: 02/22/2018] [Accepted: 04/15/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Chemotherapy is currently the only effective approach to treat all forms of leishmaniasis. However, its effectiveness is severely limited due to high toxicity, long treatment length, drug resistance, or inadequate mode of administration. As a consequence, there is a need to identify new molecular scaffolds and targets as potential therapeutics for the treatment of this disease. We report a small series of 1,2-substituted-1H-benzo[d]imidazole derivatives (9a-d) showing affinity in the submicromolar range (Ki = 0.15-0.69 μM) toward Leishmania mexicanaCPB2.8ΔCTE, one of the more promising targets for antileishmanial drug design. The compounds confirmed activity in vitro against intracellular amastigotes of Leishmania infantum with the best result being obtained with derivative 9d (IC50 = 6.8 μM), although with some degree of cytotoxicity (CC50 = 8.0 μM on PMM and CC50 = 32.0 μM on MCR-5). In silico molecular docking studies and ADME-Tox properties prediction were performed to validate the hypothesis of the interaction with the intended target and to assess the drug-likeness of these derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura De Luca
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Stefania Ferro
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Maria Rosa Buemi
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Anna-Maria Monforte
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Rosaria Gitto
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Tanja Schirmeister
- Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Louis Maes
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | | | - Nicola Micale
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
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Borsari C, Quotadamo A, Ferrari S, Venturelli A, Cordeiro-da-Silva A, Santarem N, Costi MP. Scaffolds and Biological Targets Avenue to Fight Against Drug Resistance in Leishmaniasis. ANNUAL REPORTS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.armc.2018.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Hazra S, Ghosh S, Hazra B. Phytochemicals With Antileishmanial Activity. STUDIES IN NATURAL PRODUCTS CHEMISTRY 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-63931-8.00008-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Scala A, Micale N, Piperno A, Rescifina A, Schirmeister T, Kesselring J, Grassi G. Targeting of the Leishmania mexicana cysteine protease CPB2.8ΔCTE by decorated fused benzo[b]thiophene scaffold. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra05557e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A potent and highly selective anhydride-based inhibitor ofLeishmania mexicanacysteine protease CPB2.8 (IC50= 3.7 μM) was investigated by inhibition assays, NMR biomimetic experiments and docking studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Scala
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche
- Biologiche
- Farmaceutiche ed Ambientali
- Università di Messina
- 98166 Messina
| | - N. Micale
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche
- Biologiche
- Farmaceutiche ed Ambientali
- Università di Messina
- 98166 Messina
| | - A. Piperno
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche
- Biologiche
- Farmaceutiche ed Ambientali
- Università di Messina
- 98166 Messina
| | - A. Rescifina
- Dipartimento di Scienze del Farmaco
- Università degli Studi di Catania
- 95125 Catania
- Italy
| | - T. Schirmeister
- Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry
- University of Mainz
- D 55099 Mainz
- Germany
| | - J. Kesselring
- Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry
- University of Mainz
- D 55099 Mainz
- Germany
| | - G. Grassi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche
- Biologiche
- Farmaceutiche ed Ambientali
- Università di Messina
- 98166 Messina
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Development of a New Antileishmanial Aziridine-2,3-Dicarboxylate-Based Inhibitor with High Selectivity for Parasite Cysteine Proteases. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2015; 60:797-805. [PMID: 26596939 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00426-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 11/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is one of the major neglected tropical diseases of the world. Druggable targets are the parasite cysteine proteases (CPs) of clan CA, family C1 (CAC1). In previous studies, we identified two peptidomimetic compounds, the aziridine-2,3-dicarboxylate compounds 13b and 13e, in a series of inhibitors of the cathepsin L (CL) subfamily of the papain clan CAC1. Both displayed antileishmanial activity in vitro while not showing cytotoxicity against host cells. In further investigations, the mode of action was characterized in Leishmania major. It was demonstrated that aziridines 13b and 13e mainly inhibited the parasitic cathepsin B (CB)-like CPC enzyme and, additionally, mammalian CL. Although these compounds induced cell death of Leishmania promastigotes and amastigotes in vitro, the induction of a proleishmanial T helper type 2 (Th2) response caused by host CL inhibition was observed in vivo. Therefore, we describe here the synthesis of a new library of more selective peptidomimetic aziridine-2,3-dicarboxylates discriminating between host and parasite CPs. The new compounds are based on 13b and 13e as lead structures. One of the most promising compounds of this series is compound s9, showing selective inhibition of the parasite CPs LmaCatB (a CB-like enzyme of L. major; also named L. major CPC) and LmCPB2.8 (a CL-like enzyme of Leishmania mexicana) while not affecting mammalian CL and CB. It displayed excellent leishmanicidal activities against L. major promastigotes (50% inhibitory concentration [IC50] = 37.4 μM) and amastigotes (IC50 = 2.3 μM). In summary, we demonstrate a new selective aziridine-2,3-dicarboxylate, compound s9, which might be a good candidate for future in vivo studies.
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Masic A, Valencia Hernandez AM, Hazra S, Glaser J, Holzgrabe U, Hazra B, Schurigt U. Cinnamic Acid Bornyl Ester Derivatives from Valeriana wallichii Exhibit Antileishmanial In Vivo Activity in Leishmania major-Infected BALB/c Mice. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0142386. [PMID: 26554591 PMCID: PMC4640567 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0142386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Human leishmaniasis covers a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations ranging from self-healing cutaneous leishmaniasis to severe and lethal visceral leishmaniasis caused among other species by Leishmania major or Leishmania donovani, respectively. Some drug candidates are in clinical trials to substitute current therapies, which are facing emerging drug-resistance accompanied with serious side effects. Here, two cinnamic acid bornyl ester derivatives (1 and 2) were assessed for their antileishmanial activity. Good selectivity and antileishmanial activity of bornyl 3-phenylpropanoate (2) in vitro prompted the antileishmanial assessment in vivo. For this purpose, BALB/c mice were infected with Leishmania major promastigotes and treated with three doses of 50 mg/kg/day of compound 2. The treatment prevented the characteristic swelling at the site of infection and correlated with reduced parasite burden. Transmitted light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy of Leishmania major promastigotes revealed that compounds 1 and 2 induce mitochondrial swelling. Subsequent studies on Leishmania major promastigotes showed the loss of mitochondrial transmembrane potential (ΔΨm) as a putative mode of action. As the cinnamic acid bornyl ester derivatives 1 and 2 had exhibited antileishmanial activity in vitro, and compound 2 in Leishmania major-infected BALB/c mice in vivo, they can be regarded as possible lead structures for the development of new antileishmanial therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Masic
- Institute for Molecular Infection Biology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | | | - Sudipta Hazra
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India
| | - Jan Glaser
- Institute of Pharmacy and Food Chemistry, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
- * E-mail: (US); (JG)
| | - Ulrike Holzgrabe
- Institute of Pharmacy and Food Chemistry, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Banasri Hazra
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India
| | - Uta Schurigt
- Institute for Molecular Infection Biology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
- * E-mail: (US); (JG)
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de Almeida L, Alves KF, Maciel-Rezende CM, Jesus LDOP, Pires FR, Junior CV, Izidoro MA, Júdice WADS, dos Santos MH, Marques MJ. Benzophenone derivatives as cysteine protease inhibitors and biological activity against Leishmania(L.) amazonensis amastigotes. Biomed Pharmacother 2015; 75:93-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2015.08.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2015] [Revised: 07/08/2015] [Accepted: 08/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
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Frank B, Marcu A, de Oliveira Almeida Petersen AL, Weber H, Stigloher C, Mottram JC, Scholz CJ, Schurigt U. Autophagic digestion of Leishmania major by host macrophages is associated with differential expression of BNIP3, CTSE, and the miRNAs miR-101c, miR-129, and miR-210. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:404. [PMID: 26226952 PMCID: PMC4521392 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-0974-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autophagy participates in innate immunity by eliminating intracellular pathogens. Consequently, numerous microorganisms have developed strategies to impair the autophagic machinery in phagocytes. In the current study, interactions between Leishmania major (L. m.) and the autophagic machinery of bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) were analyzed. METHODS BMDM were generated from BALB/c mice, and the cells were infected with L. m. promastigotes. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and electron tomography were used to investigate the ultrastructure of BMDM and the intracellular parasites. Affymetrix chip analyses were conducted to identify autophagy-related messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs). The protein expression levels of autophagy related 5 (ATG5), BCL2/adenovirus E1B 19 kDa protein-interacting protein 3 (BNIP3), cathepsin E (CTSE), mechanistic target of rapamycin (MTOR), microtubule-associated proteins 1A/1B light chain 3B (LC3B), and ubiquitin (UB) were investigated through western blot analyses. BMDM were transfected with specific small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) against autophagy-related genes and with mimics or inhibitors of autophagy-associated miRNAs. The infection rates of BMDM were determined by light microscopy after a parasite-specific staining. RESULTS The experiments demonstrated autophagy induction in BMDM after in vitro infection with L. m.. The results suggested a putative MTOR phosphorylation-dependent counteracting mechanism in the early infection phase and indicated that intracellular amastigotes were cleared by autophagy in BMDM in the late infection phase. Transcriptomic analyses and specific downregulation of protein expression with siRNAs suggested there is an association between the infection-specific over expression of BNIP3, as well as CTSE, and the autophagic activity of BMDM. Transfection with mimics of mmu-miR-101c and mmu-miR-129-5p, as well as with an inhibitor of mmu-miR-210-5p, demonstrated direct effects of the respective miRNAs on parasite clearance in L. m.-infected BMDM. Furthermore, Affymetrix chip analyses revealed a complex autophagy-related RNA network consisting of differentially expressed mRNAs and miRNAs in BMDM, which indicates high glycolytic and inflammatory activity in the host macrophages. CONCLUSIONS Autophagy in L. m.-infected host macrophages is a highly regulated cellular process at both the RNA level and the protein level. Autophagy has the potential to clear parasites from the host. The results obtained from experiments with murine host macrophages could be translated in the future to develop innovative and therapeutic antileishmanial strategies for human patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Frank
- Institute for Molecular Infection Biology, University of Wuerzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2/D15, 97080, Wuerzburg, Germany.
| | - Ana Marcu
- Institute for Molecular Infection Biology, University of Wuerzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2/D15, 97080, Wuerzburg, Germany.
| | - Antonio Luis de Oliveira Almeida Petersen
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK.
- Laboratório de Patologia e Biointervenção, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz-BA, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
| | - Heike Weber
- Interdisciplinary Center for Clinical Research (IZKF), University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany.
| | - Christian Stigloher
- Division of Electron Microscopy, Biocenter of the University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany.
| | - Jeremy C Mottram
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK.
| | - Claus Juergen Scholz
- Interdisciplinary Center for Clinical Research (IZKF), University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany.
| | - Uta Schurigt
- Institute for Molecular Infection Biology, University of Wuerzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2/D15, 97080, Wuerzburg, Germany.
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Why strategies to control Leishmania spp. multiplication based on the use of proteinase inhibitors should consider multiple targets and not only a single enzyme. J Mol Model 2014; 20:2465. [PMID: 25296889 DOI: 10.1007/s00894-014-2465-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The use of proteinases as targets to develop novel chemotherapies against Leishmania spp. infections is a very promising strategy. Based on a previous study by Goyal et al. [J Mol Model (2014) 20:2099], we discuss herein the idea that only a combined treatment with distinct proteinase inhibitors would be an effective antileishmanial therapy.
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Gonzalez-Leal IJ, Röger B, Schwarz A, Schirmeister T, Reinheckel T, Lutz MB, Moll H. Cathepsin B in antigen-presenting cells controls mediators of the Th1 immune response during Leishmania major infection. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e3194. [PMID: 25255101 PMCID: PMC4177854 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2014] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Resistance and susceptibility to Leishmania major infection in the murine model is determined by the capacity of the host to mount either a protective Th1 response or a Th2 response associated with disease progression. Previous reports involving the use of cysteine cathepsin inhibitors indicated that cathepsins B (Ctsb) and L (Ctsl) play important roles in Th1/Th2 polarization during L. major infection in both susceptible and resistant mouse strains. Although it was hypothesized that these effects are a consequence of differential patterns of antigen processing, the mechanisms underlying these differences were not further investigated. Given the pivotal roles that dendritic cells and macrophages play during Leishmania infection, we generated bone-marrow derived dendritic cells (BMDC) and macrophages (BMM) from Ctsb−/− and Ctsl−/− mice, and studied the effects of Ctsb and Ctsl deficiency on the survival of L. major in infected cells. Furthermore, the signals used by dendritic cells to instruct Th cell polarization were addressed: the expression of MHC class II and co-stimulatory molecules, and cytokine production. We found that Ctsb−/− BMDC express higher levels of MHC class II molecules than wild-type (WT) and Ctsl−/− BMDC, while there were no significant differences in the expression of co-stimulatory molecules between cathepsin-deficient and WT cells. Moreover, both BMDC and BMM from Ctsb−/− mice significantly up-regulated the levels of interleukin 12 (IL-12) expression, a key Th1-inducing cytokine. These findings indicate that Ctsb−/− BMDC display more pro-Th1 properties than their WT and Ctsl−/− counterparts, and therefore suggest that Ctsb down-regulates the Th1 response to L. major. Moreover, they propose a novel role for Ctsb as a regulator of cytokine expression. The emergence of resistance to the available drugs against cutaneous leishmaniasis emphasizes the need of new chemotherapeutic approaches. Cysteine proteases from Leishmania are important virulence factors and, therefore, interesting drug targets. Studies on inhibitors against these enzymes during Leishmania major infection in mice had shown that host equivalents of these proteases are also affected, namely cathepsin B and cathepsin L. The inhibition of cathepsin B resulted in immune-mediated protection, while inhibition of cathepsin L caused susceptibility to the parasite. In the present study, we investigated the effect of cathepsin deficiency on the signals used by dendritic cells to orchestrate the T helper (Th)-mediated immune response against L. major and the control of parasite proliferation within infected macrophages. The results demonstrate that cathepsin B-deficient dendritic cells express higher levels of the antigen-presenting MHC class II molecules than WT and cathepsin L-deficient cells. Surprisingly, dendritic cells and macrophages deficient for cathepsin B showed higher expression of the protective Th1-inducing cytokine IL-12. Therefore, we propose a novel role of this protease as a regulator of cytokine expression. Altogether, these findings suggest that cathepsin B down-regulates the Th1 response to L. major, and, in its absence, antigen-presenting cells express signals protecting against the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris J. Gonzalez-Leal
- Institute for Molecular Infection Biology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Bianca Röger
- Institute for Molecular Infection Biology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Angela Schwarz
- Institute for Molecular Infection Biology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Tanja Schirmeister
- University of Mainz, Institute for Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Mainz, Germany
| | - Thomas Reinheckel
- University of Freiburg, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Manfred B. Lutz
- Institute of Virology and Immunobiology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Heidrun Moll
- Institute for Molecular Infection Biology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Figliuolo VR, Chaves SP, Santoro GF, Coutinho CMLM, Meyer-Fernandes JR, Rossi-Bergmann B, Coutinho-Silva R. Periodate-oxidized ATP modulates macrophage functions during infection with Leishmania amazonensis. Cytometry A 2014; 85:588-600. [PMID: 24804957 DOI: 10.1002/cyto.a.22449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2013] [Revised: 11/30/2013] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Previously, we showed that treating macrophages with ATP impairs the intracellular growth of Leishmania amazonensis, and that the P2X7 purinergic receptor is overexpressed during leishmaniasis. In the present study, we directly evaluated the effect of periodate-oxidized ATP (oATP) on parasite control in Leishmania-infected macrophages. We found that oATP impaired the attachment/entrance of L. amazonensis promastigotes to C57BL/6 mouse macrophages in a P2X7 receptor-independent manner, as macrophages from P2X7(-/-) mice were similarly affected. Although oATP directly inhibited the growth of axenic promastigotes in culture, promoted rapid ultrastructural alterations, and impaired Leishmania internalization by macrophages, it did not affect intracellular parasite multiplication. Upon infection, phagosomal acidification was diminished in oATP-treated macrophages, accompanied by reduced endosomal proteolysis. Likewise, MHC class II molecules expression and ectoATPase activity was decreased by oATP added to macrophages at the time of parasite infection. These inhibitory effects were not due to a cytotoxic effect, as no additional release of lactate dehydrogenase was detected in culture supernatants. Moreover, the capacity of macrophages to produce nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species was not affected by the presence of oATP during infection. We conclude that oATP directly affects extracellular parasite integrity and macrophage functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- V R Figliuolo
- Laboratório de Imunofisiologia, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho-IBCCF, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil; Instituto Nacional para Pesquisa Translacional em Saúde e Ambiente na Região Amazônica, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico/MCT, Brasil
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Antileishmanial lead structures from nature: analysis of structure-activity relationships of a compound library derived from caffeic Acid bornyl ester. Molecules 2014; 19:1394-410. [PMID: 24473204 PMCID: PMC6270661 DOI: 10.3390/molecules19021394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2013] [Revised: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Bioassay-guided fractionation of a chloroform extract of Valeriana wallichii (V. wallichii) rhizomes lead to the isolation and identification of caffeic acid bornyl ester (1) as the active component against Leishmania major (L. major) promastigotes (IC50 = 48.8 µM). To investigate the structure-activity relationship (SAR), a library of compounds based on 1 was synthesized and tested in vitro against L. major and L. donovani promastigotes, and L. major amastigotes. Cytotoxicity was determined using a murine J774.1 cell line and bone marrow derived macrophages (BMDM). Some compounds showed antileishmanial activity in the concentration range of pentamidine and miltefosine which are the standard drugs in use. In the L. major amastigote assay compounds 15, 19 and 20 showed good activity with relatively low cytotoxicity against BMDM, resulting in acceptable selectivity indices. Molecules with adjacent phenolic hydroxyl groups exhibited elevated cytotoxicity against murine cell lines J774.1 and BMDM. The Michael system seems not to be essential for antileishmanial activity. Based on the results compound 27 can be regarded as new lead structure for further structure optimization.
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Smirlis D, Soares MBP. Selection of molecular targets for drug development against trypanosomatids. Subcell Biochem 2014; 74:43-76. [PMID: 24264240 DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-7305-9_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Trypanosomatid parasites are a group of flagellated protozoa that includes the genera Leishmania and Trypanosoma, which are the causative agents of diseases (leishmaniases, sleeping sickness and Chagas disease) that cause considerable morbidity and mortality, affecting more than 27 million people worldwide. Today no effective vaccines for the prevention of these diseases exist, whereas current chemotherapy is ineffective, mainly due to toxic side effects of current drugs and to the emergence of drug resistance and lack of cost effectiveness. For these reasons, rational drug design and the search of good candidate drug targets is of prime importance. The search for drug targets requires a multidisciplinary approach. To this end, the completion of the genome project of many trypanosomatid species gives a vast amount of new information that can be exploited for the identification of good drug candidates with a prediction of "druggability" and divergence from mammalian host proteins. In addition, an important aspect in the search for good drug targets is the "target identification" and evaluation in a biological pathway, as well as the essentiality of the gene in the mammalian stage of the parasite, which is provided by basic research and genetic and proteomic approaches. In this chapter we will discuss how these bioinformatic tools and experimental evaluations can be integrated for the selection of candidate drug targets, and give examples of metabolic and signaling pathways in the parasitic protozoa that can be exploited for rational drug design.
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Grabowsky S, Jayatilaka D, Fink RF, Schirmeister T, Engels B. Can Experimental Electron-Density Studies be Used as a Tool to Predict Biologically Relevant Properties of Low-Molecular Weight Enzyme Ligands? Z Anorg Allg Chem 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/zaac.201200518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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A novel Leishmania major amastigote assay in 96-well format for rapid drug screening and its use for discovery and evaluation of a new class of leishmanicidal quinolinium salts. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57:3003-11. [PMID: 23587955 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02201-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
In most laboratories, the screening for leishmanicidal compounds is carried out with Leishmania promastigotes or axenic amastigotes. However, the best approach to identify leishmanicidal compounds is the use of amastigotes residing in macrophages. Reporter gene-based assays are relatively new tools in the search for drugs against eucaryotic protozoa, permitting the development of faster, more automated assays. In this paper, we report on the establishment of a rapid screening assay in a 96-well format. A luciferase-transgenic (Luc-tg) Leishmania major strain was generated and used to infect bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM). Amastigote-infected BMDM were treated with different compound concentrations. Cells were lysed with a luciferin-containing buffer, and the resulting luminescence was measured to determine the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50). To validate this new amastigote screening assay, a library of a new class of quinolinium salts was synthesized and tested for leishmanicidal activity. Some of the quinolinium salts showed very promising activities, with IC50s against intracellular amastigotes (IC50 < 1 μg/ml) and selectivity indices (SI > 20) that match the criteria of World Health Organization (WHO) for hits. Compound 21c (IC50 = 0.03 μg/ml; SI = 358) could become a new lead structure for the development of improved chemotherapeutic drugs against L. major. In summary, we describe the establishment of a new 96-well format assay with Luc-transgenic L. major for the rapid screening of compounds for leishmanicidal activity against intracellular amastigotes and its application to the identification of a new class of quinolinium salts with most promising leishmanicidal activity.
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Adade CM, Oliveira IRS, Pais JAR, Souto-Padrón T. Melittin peptide kills Trypanosoma cruzi parasites by inducing different cell death pathways. Toxicon 2013; 69:227-39. [PMID: 23562368 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2012] [Revised: 02/05/2013] [Accepted: 03/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are components of the innate immune response that represent desirable alternatives to conventional pharmaceuticals, as they have a fast mode of action, a low likelihood of resistance development and can act in conjunction with existing drug regimens. AMPs exhibit strong inhibitory activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, fungi, viruses, metazoans and other parasites, such as the protozoan Leishmania. Melittin is a naturally occurring AMP, which comprises 40-50% of the dry weight of Apis mellifera venom. Our group has recently shown that crude A. mellifera venom is lethal to Trypanosoma cruzi, the Chagas disease etiologic agent, and generates a variety of cell death phenotypes among treated parasites. Here, we demonstrate that the melittin affected all of T. cruzi developmental forms, including the intracellular amastigotes. The ultrastructural changes induced by melittin suggested the occurrence of different programmed cell death pathways, as was observed in A. mellifera-treated parasites. Autophagic cell death appeared to be the main death mechanism in epimastigotes. In contrast, melittin-treated trypomastigotes appeared to be dying via an apoptotic mechanism. Our findings confirm the great potential of AMPs, including melittin, as a potential source of new drugs for the treatment of neglected diseases, such as Chagas disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila M Adade
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Ultraestrutura, Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, bloco I, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Ilha do Fundão, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21941-590, Brazil
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Abstract
Chagas disease chemotherapy is based on drugs that exhibit toxic effects and have limited efficacy, such as Benznidazole. Therefore, research into new chemotherapeutic agents from natural sources needs to be exploited. Apis mellifera venom consists of many biologically active molecules and has been reported to exhibit remarkable anti-cancer effects, often promoting an apoptosis-like death phenotype. This study demonstrates that A. mellifera venom can affect the growth, viability and ultrastructure of all Trypanosoma cruzi developmental forms, including intracellular amastigotes, at concentrations 15- to 100-fold lower than those required to cause toxic effects in mammalian cells. The ultrastructural changes induced by the venom in the different developmental forms led us to hypothesize the occurrence of different programmed cell death pathways. Autophagic cell death, characterized by the presence of autophagosomes-like organelles and a strong monodansyl cadaverine labelling, appears to be the main death mechanism in epimastigotes. In contrast, increased TUNEL staining, abnormal nuclear chromatin condensation and kDNA disorganization was observed in venom-treated trypomastigotes, suggesting cell death by an apoptotic mechanism. On the other hand, intracellular amastigotes presented a heterogeneous cell death phenotype profile, where apoptosis-like death seemed to be predominant. Our findings confirm the great potential of A. mellifera venom as a source for the development of new drugs for the treatment of neglected diseases such as Chagas disease.
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Brennand A, Rico E, Michels PAM. Autophagy in trypanosomatids. Cells 2012; 1:346-71. [PMID: 24710480 PMCID: PMC3901119 DOI: 10.3390/cells1030346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2012] [Revised: 07/14/2012] [Accepted: 07/16/2012] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a ubiquitous eukaryotic process that also occurs in trypanosomatid parasites, protist organisms belonging to the supergroup Excavata, distinct from the supergroup Opistokontha that includes mammals and fungi. Half of the known yeast and mammalian AuTophaGy (ATG) proteins were detected in trypanosomatids, although with low sequence conservation. Trypanosomatids such as Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania spp. are responsible for serious tropical diseases in humans. The parasites are transmitted by insects and, consequently, have a complicated life cycle during which they undergo dramatic morphological and metabolic transformations to adapt to the different environments. Autophagy plays a major role during these transformations. Since inhibition of autophagy affects the transformation, survival and/or virulence of the parasites, the ATGs offer promise for development of drugs against tropical diseases. Furthermore, various trypanocidal drugs have been shown to trigger autophagy-like processes in the parasites. It is inferred that autophagy is used by the parasites in an-not always successful-attempt to cope with the stress caused by the toxic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Brennand
- Research Unit for Tropical Diseases, de Duve Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Avenue Hippocrate 74, postal box B1.74.01, B-1200 Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Eva Rico
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Campus, University of Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, 28871, Spain.
| | - Paul A M Michels
- Research Unit for Tropical Diseases, de Duve Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Avenue Hippocrate 74, postal box B1.74.01, B-1200 Brussels, Belgium.
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Nicoll-Griffith DA. Use of cysteine-reactive small molecules in drug discovery for trypanosomal disease. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2012; 7:353-66. [PMID: 22458506 DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2012.668520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The roles of cysteine protease (CP) enzymes in the biochemistry and infectivity of the three trypanosomal parasitic infections, Chagas' disease, leishmaniasis and human African trypanosomiasis, which have been elucidated over the last three decades are summarized. Inhibitors of these enzymes, which act through trapping the active site cysteine with an electrophilic warhead, hold huge potential as therapeutic agents but the promise of these has yet to be realized in clinical studies. The article addresses aspects that ought to be considered in order to develop orally active CP inhibitors that are safe and effective therapies for trypanosomiasis. AREAS COVERED This article reviews learnings from CP research in the trypanosomal field and recent advances in developing cysteine protease inhibitors (CPIs) of human cathepsin K, a related enzyme. Considerations such as intra- and extracellular localization of the CPs, off-target activities against human cathepsin enzymes, basic versus neutral and potential pro-drug inhibitors are reviewed. A description of odanacatib, a cathepsin K inhibitor currently in late stage development, is made to illustrate the attributes of a clinically viable CPI. EXPERT OPINION The emerging role of CPs in a wide array of parasitic diseases is highlighted with the vision that CP inhibitors could become the 'β-lactams' of anti-parasitic treatments in the coming decades. New CPI research will see the optimization of intra- and extracellular enzyme targeting, reduction of off-target activities and better understanding of pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic interactions which will all lead to compounds with much improved efficacy and viability as clinical therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah A Nicoll-Griffith
- Infectious Diseases Franchise, Discovery and Pre-clinical Sciences, Merck and Co., Office K11-2047B, 2000 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, NJ 07033, USA.
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Discovery of safe and orally effective 4-aminoquinaldine analogues as apoptotic inducers with activity against experimental visceral leishmaniasis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2011; 56:432-45. [PMID: 22024817 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00700-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Novel antileishmanials are urgently required to overcome emergence of drug resistance, cytotoxic effects, and difficulties in oral delivery. Toward this, we investigated a series of novel 4-aminoquinaldine derivatives, a new class of molecules, as potential antileishmanials. 4-Aminoquinaldine derivatives presented inhibitory effects on L. donovani promastigotes and amastigotes (50% inhibitory concentration range, 0.94 to 127 μM). Of these, PP-9 and PP-10 were the most effective in vitro and demonstrated strong efficacies in vivo through the intraperitoneal route. They were also found to be effective against both sodium antimony gluconate-sensitive and -resistant Leishmania donovani strains in BALB/c mice when treated orally, resulting in more than 95% protection. Investigation of their mode of action revealed that killing by PP-10 involved moderate inhibition of dihydrofolate reductase and elicitation of the apoptotic cascade. Our studies implicate that PP-10 augments reactive oxygen species generation, evidenced from decreased glutathione levels and increased lipid peroxidation. Subsequent disruption of Leishmania promastigote mitochondrial membrane potential and activation of cytosolic proteases initiated the apoptotic pathway, resulting in DNA fragmentation and parasite death. Our results demonstrate that PP-9 and PP-10 are promising lead compounds with the potential for treating visceral leishmaniasis (VL) through the oral route.
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Duncan R, Gannavaram S, Dey R, Debrabant A, Lakhal-Naouar I, Nakhasi HL. Identification and characterization of genes involved in leishmania pathogenesis: the potential for drug target selection. Mol Biol Int 2011; 2011:428486. [PMID: 22091403 PMCID: PMC3200065 DOI: 10.4061/2011/428486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2011] [Revised: 03/26/2011] [Accepted: 04/28/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Identifying and characterizing Leishmania donovani genes and the proteins they encode for their role in pathogenesis can reveal the value of this approach for finding new drug targets. Effective drug targets are likely to be proteins differentially expressed or required in the amastigote life cycle stage found in the patient. Several examples and their potential for chemotherapeutic disruption are presented. A pathway nearly ubiquitous in living cells targeted by anticancer drugs, the ubiquitin system, is examined. New findings in ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like modifiers in Leishmania show how disruption of those pathways could point to additional drug targets. The programmed cell death pathway, now recognized among protozoan parasites, is reviewed for some of its components and evidence that suggests they could be targeted for antiparasitic drug therapy. Finally, the endoplasmic reticulum quality control system is involved in secretion of many virulence factors. How disruptions in this pathway reduce virulence as evidence for potential drug targets is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Duncan
- Division of Emerging and Transfusion Transmitted Diseases, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, FDA, Bethesda, MD 20852, USA
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