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Bordón AG, Profeta MI, Romero JM, Jorge MJ, Jorge LC, Jorge NL, Sainz-Díaz CI, Cuéllar-Zuquin J, Roca-Sanjuán D, Viseras Iborra C, Grand A, Hernández-Laguna A. Kinetic Study and Reaction Mechanism of the Gas-Phase Thermolysis Reaction of Methyl Derivatives of 1,2,4,5-Tetroxane. Molecules 2024; 29:3274. [PMID: 39064853 PMCID: PMC11279299 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29143274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2024] [Revised: 06/24/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Tetroxane derivatives are interesting drugs for antileishmaniasis and antimalaric treatments. The gas-phase thermal decomposition of 3,6,-dimethyl-1,2,4,5-tetroxane (DMT) and 3,3,6,6,-tetramethyl-1,2,4,5-tetroxane (acetone diperoxide (ACDP)) was studied at 493-543 K by direct gas chromatography by means of a flow reactor. The reaction is produced in the injector chamber at different temperatures. The resulting kinetics Arrhenius equations were calculated for both tetroxanes. Including the parent compound of the series 1,2,4,5-tetroxane (formaldehyde diperoxide (FDP)), the activation energy and frequency factors decrease linearly with the number of methyl groups. The reaction mechanisms of ACDP and 3,6,6-trimethyl-1,2,4,5-tetroxane (TMT) decomposition have been studied by means of the DFT method with the BHANDHLYP functional. Our calculations confirm that the concerted mechanism should be discarded and that only the stepwise mechanism occurs. The critical points of the singlet and triplet state potential energy surfaces (S- and T-PES) of the thermolysis reaction of both compounds have been determined. The calculated activation energies of the different steps vary linearly with the number of methyl groups of the methyl-tetroxanes series. The mechanism for the S-PES leads to a diradical O···O open structure, which leads to a C···O dissociation in the second step and the production of the first acetaldehyde/acetone molecule. This last one yields a second C···O dissociation, producing O2 and another acetone/acetaldehyde molecule. The O2 molecule is in the singlet state. A quasi-parallel mechanism for the T-PES from the open diradical to products is also found. Most of the critical points of both PES are linear with the number of methyl groups. Reaction in the triplet state is much more exothermic than the singlet state mechanism. Transitions from the singlet ground state, S0 and low-lying singlet states S1-3, to the low-lying triplet excited states, T1-4, (chemical excitation) in the family of methyl tetroxanes are also studied at the CASSCF/CASPT2 level. Two possible mechanisms are possible here: (i) from S0 to T3 by strong spin orbit coupling (SOC) and subsequent fast internal conversion to the excited T1 state and (ii) from S0 to S2 from internal conversion and subsequent S2 to T1 by SOC. From these experimental and theoretical results, the additivity effect of the methyl groups in the thermolysis reaction of the methyl tetroxane derivatives is clearly highlighted. This information will have a great impact for controlling these processes in the laboratory and chemical industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander G. Bordón
- Laboratorio de Investigaciones en Tecnología Ambiental, Área de Química Física Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales y Agrimensura, Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Av. Libertad 5460, Corrientes 3400, Argentina; (A.G.B.); (M.I.P.); (J.M.R.); (M.J.J.); (L.C.J.); (N.L.J.)
| | - Mariela I. Profeta
- Laboratorio de Investigaciones en Tecnología Ambiental, Área de Química Física Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales y Agrimensura, Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Av. Libertad 5460, Corrientes 3400, Argentina; (A.G.B.); (M.I.P.); (J.M.R.); (M.J.J.); (L.C.J.); (N.L.J.)
| | - Jorge M. Romero
- Laboratorio de Investigaciones en Tecnología Ambiental, Área de Química Física Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales y Agrimensura, Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Av. Libertad 5460, Corrientes 3400, Argentina; (A.G.B.); (M.I.P.); (J.M.R.); (M.J.J.); (L.C.J.); (N.L.J.)
| | - María J. Jorge
- Laboratorio de Investigaciones en Tecnología Ambiental, Área de Química Física Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales y Agrimensura, Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Av. Libertad 5460, Corrientes 3400, Argentina; (A.G.B.); (M.I.P.); (J.M.R.); (M.J.J.); (L.C.J.); (N.L.J.)
| | - Lilian C. Jorge
- Laboratorio de Investigaciones en Tecnología Ambiental, Área de Química Física Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales y Agrimensura, Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Av. Libertad 5460, Corrientes 3400, Argentina; (A.G.B.); (M.I.P.); (J.M.R.); (M.J.J.); (L.C.J.); (N.L.J.)
| | - Nelly L. Jorge
- Laboratorio de Investigaciones en Tecnología Ambiental, Área de Química Física Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales y Agrimensura, Universidad Nacional del Nordeste, Av. Libertad 5460, Corrientes 3400, Argentina; (A.G.B.); (M.I.P.); (J.M.R.); (M.J.J.); (L.C.J.); (N.L.J.)
| | - C. Ignacio Sainz-Díaz
- Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Av. Las Palmeras 4, 18100 Armilla, Granada, Spain;
| | - Juliana Cuéllar-Zuquin
- Instituto de Ciencia Molecular, Universitat de València, Apartado 22085, 46071 Valencia, Spain; (J.C.-Z.); (D.R.-S.)
| | - Daniel Roca-Sanjuán
- Instituto de Ciencia Molecular, Universitat de València, Apartado 22085, 46071 Valencia, Spain; (J.C.-Z.); (D.R.-S.)
| | - César Viseras Iborra
- Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Av. Las Palmeras 4, 18100 Armilla, Granada, Spain;
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Granada, Campus de Cartuja s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - André Grand
- Unité de Formation et de Recherche, Université Grenoble Alpes, Commissariat á l’Énergy Atomique (CEA), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institute for Nanoscience and Cryogenics-Systèmes Moléculaires et Nanomatériaux por l’Énergieset la Santé (INAC-SyMMES), 38000 Grenoble, France;
| | - Alfonso Hernández-Laguna
- Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Av. Las Palmeras 4, 18100 Armilla, Granada, Spain;
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Machin L, Piontek M, Todhe S, Staniek K, Monzote L, Fudickar W, Linker T, Gille L. Antileishmanial Anthracene Endoperoxides: Efficacy In Vitro, Mechanisms and Structure-Activity Relationships. Molecules 2022; 27:6846. [PMID: 36296439 PMCID: PMC9612231 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27206846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is a vector-borne disease caused by protozoal Leishmania parasites. Previous studies have shown that endoperoxides (EP) can selectively kill Leishmania in host cells. Therefore, we studied in this work a set of new anthracene-derived EP (AcEP) together with their non-endoperoxidic analogs in model systems of Leishmania tarentolae promastigotes (LtP) and J774 macrophages for their antileishmanial activity and selectivity. The mechanism of effective compounds was explored by studying their reaction with iron (II) in chemical systems and in Leishmania. The correlation of structural parameters with activity demonstrated that in this compound set, active compounds had a LogPOW larger than 3.5 and a polar surface area smaller than 100 Å2. The most effective compounds (IC50 in LtP < 2 µM) with the highest selectivity (SI > 30) were pyridyl-/tert-butyl-substituted AcEP. Interestingly, also their analogs demonstrated activity and selectivity. In mechanistic studies, it was shown that EP were activated by iron in chemical systems and in LtP due to their EP group. However, the molecular structure beyond the EP group significantly contributed to their differential mitochondrial inhibition in Leishmania. The identified compound pairs are a good starting point for subsequent experiments in pathogenic Leishmania in vitro and in animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Machin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria
- Pharmacy Department, Institute of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of Havana, Havana 13600, Cuba
| | - Martin Piontek
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Sara Todhe
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Katrin Staniek
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Lianet Monzote
- Parasitology Department, Institute of Tropical Medicine “Pedro Kouri”, Havana 11400, Cuba
| | - Werner Fudickar
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Torsten Linker
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Lars Gille
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria
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Dimeric Artesunate Glycerophosphocholine Conjugate Nano-Assemblies as Slow-Release Antimalarials to Overcome Kelch 13 Mutant Artemisinin Resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2022; 66:e0206521. [PMID: 35416709 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02065-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Current best practice for the treatment of malaria relies on short half-life artemisinins that are failing against emerging Kelch 13 mutant parasite strains. Here, we introduce a liposome-like self-assembly of a dimeric artesunate glycerophosphocholine conjugate (dAPC-S) as an amphiphilic prodrug for the short-lived antimalarial drug, dihydroartemisinin (DHA), with enhanced killing of Kelch 13 mutant artemisinin-resistant parasites. Cryo-electron microscopy (cryoEM) images and the dynamic light scattering (DLS) technique show that dAPC-S typically exhibits a multilamellar liposomal structure with a size distribution similar to that of the liposomes generated using thin-film dispersion (dAPC-L). Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS) was used to monitor the release of DHA. Sustainable release of DHA from dAPC-S and dAPC-L assemblies increased the effective dose and thus efficacy against Kelch 13 mutant artemisinin-resistant parasites in an in vitro assay. To better understand the enhanced killing effect, we investigated processes for deactivation of both the assemblies and DHA, including the roles of serum components and trace levels of iron. Analysis of parasite proteostasis pathways revealed that dAPC assemblies exert their activity via the same mechanism as DHA. We conclude that this easily prepared multilamellar liposome-like dAPC-S with long-acting efficacy shows potential for the treatment of severe and artemisinin-resistant malaria.
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Auparakkitanon S, Wilairat P, Wilairat P. Will the in situ activator(s) of artemisinin please stand up? Mol Biochem Parasitol 2022; 248:111461. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2022.111461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Yang J, He Y, Li Y, Zhang X, Wong YK, Shen S, Zhong T, Zhang J, Liu Q, Wang J. Advances in the research on the targets of anti-malaria actions of artemisinin. Pharmacol Ther 2020; 216:107697. [PMID: 33035577 PMCID: PMC7537645 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Malaria has been a global epidemic health threat since ancient times. It still claims roughly half a million lives every year in this century. Artemisinin and its derivatives, are frontline antimalarial drugs known for their efficacy and low toxicity. After decades of wide use, artemisinins remain our bulwark against malaria. Here, we review decades of efforts that aim to understand the mechanism of action (MOA) of artemisinins, which help explain the specificity and potency of this anti-malarial drug. We summarize the methods and approaches employed to unravel the MOA of artemisinin over the last three decades, showing how the development of advanced techniques can help provide mechanistic insights and resolve some long-standing questions in the field of artemisinin research. We also provide examples to illustrate how to better repurpose artemisinins for anti-cancer therapies by leveraging on MOA. These examples point out a practical direction to engineer artemisinin for broader applications beyond malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Yang
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases, Ministry of Education, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China; Artemisinin Research Center, and Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yingke He
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases, Ministry of Education, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China; Department of Anaesthesiology, Singapore General Hospital, Singapore
| | - Yinbao Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, JiangXi 341000, China
| | - Xing Zhang
- Artemisinin Research Center, and Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yin-Kwan Wong
- Artemisinin Research Center, and Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Shengnan Shen
- Artemisinin Research Center, and Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Tianyu Zhong
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases, Ministry of Education, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China; Laboratory Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China.
| | - Jianbin Zhang
- Department of Oncology, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Qian Liu
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases, Ministry of Education, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China.
| | - Jigang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases, Ministry of Education, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China; Artemisinin Research Center, and Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China; Central People's Hospital of Zhanjiang, Zhanjiang, Guangdong, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.
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Tsamesidis I, Reybier K, Marchetti G, Pau MC, Virdis P, Fozza C, Nepveu F, Low PS, Turrini FM, Pantaleo A. Syk Kinase Inhibitors Synergize with Artemisinins by Enhancing Oxidative Stress in Plasmodium falciparum-Parasitized Erythrocytes. Antioxidants (Basel) 2020; 9:antiox9080753. [PMID: 32824055 PMCID: PMC7464437 DOI: 10.3390/antiox9080753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Although artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) treat Plasmodium falciparum malaria effectively throughout most of the world, the recent expansion of ACT-resistant strains in some countries of the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) further increased the interest in improving the effectiveness of treatment and counteracting resistance. Recognizing that (1) partially denatured hemoglobin containing reactive iron (hemichromes) is generated in parasitized red blood cells (pRBC) by oxidative stress, (2) redox-active hemichromes have the potential to enhance oxidative stress triggered by the parasite and the activation of artemisinin to its pharmaceutically active form, and (3) Syk kinase inhibitors block the release of membrane microparticles containing hemichromes, we hypothesized that increasing hemichrome content in parasitized erythrocytes through the inhibition of Syk kinase might trigger a virtuous cycle involving the activation of artemisinin, the enhancement of oxidative stress elicited by activated artemisinin, and a further increase in hemichrome production. We demonstrate here that artemisinin indeed augments oxidative stress within parasitized RBCs and that Syk kinase inhibitors further increase iron-dependent oxidative stress, synergizing with artemisinin in killing the parasite. We then demonstrate that Syk kinase inhibitors achieve this oxidative enhancement by preventing parasite-induced release of erythrocyte-derived microparticles containing redox-active hemichromes. We also observe that Syk kinase inhibitors do not promote oxidative toxicity to healthy RBCs as they do not produce appreciable amounts of hemichromes. Since some Syk kinase inhibitors can be taken daily with minimal side effects, we propose that Syk kinase inhibitors could evidently contribute to the potentiation of ACTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Tsamesidis
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (I.T.); (G.M.); (M.C.P.)
- UMR 152 Pharma-Dev, Université de Toulouse, IRD, UPS, 31000 Toulouse, France; (K.R.); (F.N.)
| | - Karine Reybier
- UMR 152 Pharma-Dev, Université de Toulouse, IRD, UPS, 31000 Toulouse, France; (K.R.); (F.N.)
| | - Giuseppe Marchetti
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (I.T.); (G.M.); (M.C.P.)
| | - Maria Carmina Pau
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (I.T.); (G.M.); (M.C.P.)
| | - Patrizia Virdis
- Department of Clinical, Surgical and Experimental Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (P.V.); (C.F.)
| | - Claudio Fozza
- Department of Clinical, Surgical and Experimental Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (P.V.); (C.F.)
| | - Francoise Nepveu
- UMR 152 Pharma-Dev, Université de Toulouse, IRD, UPS, 31000 Toulouse, France; (K.R.); (F.N.)
| | - Philip S. Low
- Purdue Institute for Drug Discovery and Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA;
| | | | - Antonella Pantaleo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (I.T.); (G.M.); (M.C.P.)
- Correspondence:
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Tsamesidis I, Pério P, Pantaleo A, Reybier K. Oxidation of Erythrocytes Enhance the Production of Reactive Species in the Presence of Artemisinins. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21134799. [PMID: 32646002 PMCID: PMC7369783 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21134799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In red blood cells, hemoglobin iron represents the most plausible candidate to catalyze artemisinin activation but the limited reactivity of iron bound to hemoglobin does not play in favor for its direct involvement. Denatured hemoglobin appears a more likely candidate for artemisinin redox activation because it is expected to contain reactive iron and it has been described to release free heme and/or iron in erythrocyte. The aim of our study is to investigate, using three different methods: fluorescence, electron paramagnetic resonance and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry, how increasing the level of accessible iron into the red blood cells can enhance the reactive oxygen species (ROS) production derived from artemisinin. The over-increase of iron was achieved using phenylhydrazine, a strong oxidant that causes oxidative stress within erythrocytes, resulting in oxidation of oxyhemoglobin and leading to the formation of methemoglobin, which is subsequently converted into irreversible hemichromes (iron (III) compounds). Our findings confirmed, using the iron III chelator, desferrioxamine, the indirect participation of iron (III) compounds in the activation process of artemisinins. Furthermore, in strong reducing conditions, the activation of artemisinin and the consequent production of ROS was enhanced. In conclusion, we demonstrate, through the measurement of intra-erythrocytic superoxide and hydrogen peroxide production using various methods, that artemisinin activation can be drastically enhanced by pre-oxidation of erythrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Tsamesidis
- Pharma-Dev UMR 152, Université de Toulouse, IRD, UPS, 31000 Toulouse, France; (P.P.); (K.R.)
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy;
- Correspondence:
| | - Pierre Pério
- Pharma-Dev UMR 152, Université de Toulouse, IRD, UPS, 31000 Toulouse, France; (P.P.); (K.R.)
| | - Antonella Pantaleo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy;
| | - Karine Reybier
- Pharma-Dev UMR 152, Université de Toulouse, IRD, UPS, 31000 Toulouse, France; (P.P.); (K.R.)
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Deng H, Huang X, Jin C, Jin CM, Quan ZS. Synthesis, in vitro and in vivo biological evaluation of dihydroartemisinin derivatives with potential anti-Toxoplasma gondii agents. Bioorg Chem 2019; 94:103467. [PMID: 31791681 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2019.103467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Revised: 10/09/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
In this study, four series of dihydroartemisinin derivatives were designed, synthesized, and evaluated for anti-toxoplasma gondii activity, and calculated the selectivity index (SI). It was the higher the SI, the better the effect of this compound against Toxoplasma gondii. Our goal was to filter out compounds that were bigger SI than the lead compound. The compound with the highest SI was selected for the anti-toxoplasmosis test in mice in vivo. Among the synthesized compounds, the (3R,5aS,6R,8aS,9R,12R,12aR)-3,6,9-trimethyl-decahydro-12H-3,12-epoxy[1,2]di-oxepino[4,3 -i]isochromen-10-yl-(te-rt-butoxycarbonyl)-l-alaninate (A2) exhibited the most potent anti-T. gondii activity and low cytotoxicity (SI: 6.44), yielding better results than the lead compound DHA (SI: 1.00) and the clinically used positive-control drug spiramycin (SI: 0.72) in vitro. Furthermore, compound A2 had better growth inhibitory effects on T. gondii in vivo than spiramycin did and significantly reduced the number of tachyzoites in the peritoneal cavity of mice (P < 0.01). The evaluation of the data generated in the T. gondii mouse infection model indicates that compound A2 treatment was a good inhibitor of T. gondii in vivo and that it was effective in relieving the liver damage induced by T. gondii. In addition, the results of a docking study revealed that A2 could become a better T. gondii calcium-dependent protein kinase1 (TgCDPK1) inhibitor. For this reason, compound A2 has potential as an anti-parasitic drug. Further studies are required to elucidate the mechanism of the action of compound A2, as well as to develop drug delivery systems for patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Deng
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Xing Huang
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Chunmei Jin
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Chun-Mei Jin
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China.
| | - Zhe-Shan Quan
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China.
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Yang Y, Gao H, Hou S, Su R, Liu H, Sun J. A sensitive, high-throughput, and ecofriendly method for the determination of lumefantrine, artemether, and its active metabolite dihydroartemisinin by supercritical fluid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry. J Sep Sci 2018; 41:2688-2696. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201800025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2018] [Revised: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yinxian Yang
- Wuya College of Innovation; Shenyang Pharmaceutical University; Shenyang P. R. China
| | - Hailing Gao
- College of Pharmacy; Shenyang Pharmaceutical University; Shenyang P. R. China
| | - Shanshan Hou
- College of Pharmacy; Shenyang Pharmaceutical University; Shenyang P. R. China
| | - Ruijuan Su
- College of Pharmacy; Shenyang Pharmaceutical University; Shenyang P. R. China
| | - Hongzhuo Liu
- College of Pharmacy; Shenyang Pharmaceutical University; Shenyang P. R. China
| | - Jin Sun
- Wuya College of Innovation; Shenyang Pharmaceutical University; Shenyang P. R. China
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Parasite-Mediated Degradation of Synthetic Ozonide Antimalarials Impacts In Vitro Antimalarial Activity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2018; 62:AAC.01566-17. [PMID: 29263074 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01566-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Accepted: 12/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The peroxide bond of the artemisinins inspired the development of a class of fully synthetic 1,2,4-trioxolane-based antimalarials, collectively known as the ozonides. Similar to the artemisinins, heme-mediated degradation of the ozonides generates highly reactive radical species that are thought to mediate parasite killing by damaging critical parasite biomolecules. We examined the relationship between parasite dependent degradation and antimalarial activity for two ozonides, OZ277 (arterolane) and OZ439 (artefenomel), using a combination of in vitro drug stability and pulsed-exposure activity assays. Our results showed that drug degradation is parasite stage dependent and positively correlates with parasite load. Increasing trophozoite-stage parasitemia leads to substantially higher rates of degradation for both OZ277 and OZ439, and this is associated with a reduction in in vitro antimalarial activity. Under conditions of very high parasitemia (∼90%), OZ277 and OZ439 were rapidly degraded and completely devoid of activity in trophozoite-stage parasite cultures exposed to a 3-h drug pulse. This study highlights the impact of increasing parasite load on ozonide stability and in vitro antimalarial activity and should be considered when investigating the antimalarial mode of action of the ozonide antimalarials under conditions of high parasitemia.
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Pandey N, Pandey-Rai S. Updates on artemisinin: an insight to mode of actions and strategies for enhanced global production. PROTOPLASMA 2016; 253:15-30. [PMID: 25813833 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-015-0805-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2015] [Accepted: 03/16/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Application of traditional Chinese drug, artemisinin, originally derived from Artemisia annua L., in malaria therapy has now been globally accepted. Artemisinin and its derivatives, with their established safety records, form the first line of malaria treatment via artemisinin combination therapies (ACTs). In addition to its antimalarial effects, artemisinin has recently been evaluated in terms of its antitumour, antibacterial, antiviral, antileishmanial, antischistosomiatic, herbicidal and other properties. However, low levels of artemisinin in plants have emerged various conventional, transgenic and nontransgenic approaches for enhanced production of the drug. According to WHO (2014), approximately 3.2 billion people are at risk of this disease. However, unfortunately, artemisinin availability is still facing its short supply. To fulfil artemisinin's global demand, no single method alone is reliable, and there is a need to collectively use conventional and advanced approaches for its higher production. Further, it is the unique structure of artemisinin that makes it a potential drug not only against malaria but to other diseases as well. Execution of its action through multiple mechanisms is probably the reason behind its wide spectrum of action. Unfortunately, due to clues for developing artemisinin resistance in malaria parasites, it has become desirable to explore all possible modes of action of artemisinin so that new generation antimalarial drugs can be developed in future. The present review provides a comprehensive updates on artemisinin modes of action and strategies for enhanced artemisinin production at global level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neha Pandey
- Laboratory of Morphogenesis, Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Shashi Pandey-Rai
- Laboratory of Morphogenesis, Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India.
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Stability of the antimalarial drug dihydroartemisinin under physiologically relevant conditions: implications for clinical treatment and pharmacokinetic and in vitro assays. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2015; 59:4046-52. [PMID: 25918150 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00183-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2015] [Accepted: 04/19/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Artemisinins are peroxidic antimalarial drugs known to be very potent but highly chemically unstable; they degrade in the presence of ferrous iron, Fe(II)-heme, or biological reductants. Less documented is how this translates into chemical stability and antimalarial activity across a range of conditions applying to in vitro testing and clinical situations. Dihydroartemisinin (DHA) is studied here because it is an antimalarial drug on its own and the main metabolite of other artemisinins. The behaviors of DHA in phosphate-buffered saline, plasma, or erythrocyte lysate at different temperatures and pH ranges were examined. The antimalarial activity of the residual drug was evaluated using the chemosensitivity assay on Plasmodium falciparum, and the extent of decomposition of DHA was established through use of high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection analysis. The role of the Fe(II)-heme was investigated by blocking its reactivity using carbon monoxide (CO). A significant reduction in the antimalarial activity of DHA was seen after incubation in plasma and to a lesser extent in erythrocyte lysate. Activity was reduced by half after 3 h and almost completely abolished after 24 h. Serum-enriched media also affected DHA activity. Effects were temperature and pH dependent and paralleled the increased rate of decomposition of DHA from pH 7 upwards and in plasma. These results suggest that particular care should be taken in conducting and interpreting in vitro studies, prone as their results are to experimental and drug storage conditions. Disorders such as fever, hemolysis, or acidosis associated with malaria severity may contribute to artemisinin instability and reduce their clinical efficacy.
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Klonis N, Creek DJ, Tilley L. Iron and heme metabolism in Plasmodium falciparum and the mechanism of action of artemisinins. Curr Opin Microbiol 2013; 16:722-7. [PMID: 23932203 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2013.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2013] [Accepted: 07/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
During the asexual blood stage of its lifecycle, the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum grows and multiplies in the hemoglobin-rich environment of the human erythrocyte. Although the parasite has evolved unique strategies to survive in this environment, its interaction with iron represents an Achilles' heel that is exploited by many antimalarial drugs. Recent work has shed new light on how the parasite deals with hemoglobin breakdown products and on the role of iron as a mediator of the action of the antimalarial drug, artemisinin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nectarios Klonis
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, and ARC Centre of Excellence for Coherent X-ray Science, 30 Flemington Road, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
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Calderón F, Wilson DM, Gamo FJ. Antimalarial drug discovery: recent progress and future directions. PROGRESS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2013; 52:97-151. [PMID: 23384667 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-62652-3.00003-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Félix Calderón
- Tres Cantos Medicines Development Campus, Diseases of the Developing World, GlaxoSmithKline, Tres Cantos, Spain
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Tangnitipong S, Thaptimthong T, Srihirun S, Unchern S, Kittikool D, Udomsangpetch R, Sibmooh N. Extracellular Heme Enhances the Antimalarial Activity of Artemisinin. Biol Pharm Bull 2012; 35:29-33. [DOI: 10.1248/bpb.35.29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sirada Srihirun
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University
| | - Supeenun Unchern
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University
| | | | | | - Nathawut Sibmooh
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University
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Quantification of dihydroartemisinin, artesunate and artemisinin in human blood: overcoming the technical challenge of protecting the peroxide bridge. Bioanalysis 2011; 3:1613-24. [PMID: 21756094 DOI: 10.4155/bio.11.158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Quantification of artemisinin (ARN) and its derivatives in whole blood has hitherto been thought impossible. RESULTS A LC-MS/MS method for the analysis of artesunate (ARS), its metabolite dihydroartemisinin (DHA) and artemisinin in human whole blood has been developed and successfully validated. The method includes stabilization of the blood matrix at the time of collection and at the time of analysis. Addition of potassium dichromate to the blood samples deactivated the Fe(2+) core in hemoglobin, while deferoxamine chelated Fe(3+) and prevented back conversion into Fe(2+). A pilot study showed that the blood:plasma ratio for ARS and DHA is approximately 0.75, indicating a significantly lower uptake in red blood cells than had previously been estimated using radiolabeled drug methodology. CONCLUSIONS The developed LC-MS/MS assay is the first method available for quantification of ARN and its derivatives in blood and opens up new possibilities of studying these drugs inside infected red blood cells.
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O’Neill PM, Barton VE, Ward SA. The molecular mechanism of action of artemisinin--the debate continues. Molecules 2010; 15:1705-21. [PMID: 20336009 PMCID: PMC6257357 DOI: 10.3390/molecules15031705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 370] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2010] [Revised: 02/23/2010] [Accepted: 03/09/2010] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite international efforts to 'roll back malaria' the 2008 World Malaria Report revealed the disease still affects approximately 3 billion people in 109 countries; 45 within the WHO African region. The latest report however does provide some 'cautious optimism'; more than one third of malarious countries have documented greater than 50% reductions in malaria cases in 2008 compared to 2000. The goal of the Member States at the World Health Assembly and 'Roll Back Malaria' (RBM) partnership is to reduce the numbers of malaria cases and deaths recorded in 2000 by 50% or more by the end of 2010. Although malaria is preventable it is most prevalent in poorer countries where prevention is difficult and prophylaxis is generally not an option. The burden of disease has increased by the emergence of multi drug resistant (MDR) parasites which threatens the use of established and cost effective antimalarial agents. After a major change in treatment policies, artemisinins are now the frontline treatment to aid rapid clearance of parasitaemia and quick resolution of symptoms. Since artemisinin and its derivatives are eliminated rapidly, artemisinin combination therapies (ACT's) are now recommended to delay resistance mechanisms. In spite of these precautionary measures reduced susceptibility of parasites to the artemisinin-based component of ACT's has developed at the Thai-Cambodian border, a historical 'hot spot' for MDR parasite evolution and emergence. This development raises serious concerns for the future of the artemsinins and this is not helped by controversy related to the mode of action. Although a number of potential targets have been proposed the actual mechanism of action remains ambiguous. Interestingly, artemisinins have also shown potent and broad anticancer properties in cell lines and animal models and are becoming established as anti-schistosomal agents. In this review we will discuss the recent evidence explaining bioactivation and potential molecular targets in the chemotherapy of malaria and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul M. O’Neill
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Oxford Street, Liverpool L697ZD, UK; E-Mail: (V.E.B.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: .
| | - Victoria E. Barton
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Oxford Street, Liverpool L697ZD, UK; E-Mail: (V.E.B.)
| | - Stephen A. Ward
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place Liverpool L35QA, UK; E-Mail: (S.A.W.)
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Eastman RT, Fidock DA. Artemisinin-based combination therapies: a vital tool in efforts to eliminate malaria. Nat Rev Microbiol 2009; 7:864-74. [PMID: 19881520 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro2239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 358] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum resistance to chloroquine and sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine has led to the recent adoption of artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) as the first line of treatment against malaria. ACTs comprise semisynthetic artemisinin derivatives paired with distinct chemical classes of longer acting drugs. These artemisinins are exceptionally potent against the pathogenic asexual blood stages of Plasmodium parasites and also act on the transmissible sexual stages. These combinations increase the rates of clinical and parasitological cures and decrease the selection pressure for the emergence of antimalarial resistance. This Review article discusses our current knowledge about the mode of action of ACTs, their pharmacological properties and the proposed mechanisms of drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard T Eastman
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, Hammer Health Sciences Center, Room 1502, 701 West 168th Street, New York 10032, New York, USA.
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