Significantly Improved Pharmacokinetics Enhances In Vivo Efficacy of APX001 against Echinocandin- and Multidrug-Resistant Candida Isolates in a Mouse Model of Invasive Candidiasis

Novel antifungals and treatment approaches to tackle resistance and improve outcomes of invasive fungal disease

SUMMARYFungal infections are on the rise, driven by a growing population at risk and climate change. Currently available antifungals include only five classes, and their utility and efficacy in antifungal treatment are limited by one or more of innate or acquired resistance in some fungi, poor penetration into "sequestered" sites, and agent-specific side effect which require frequent patient reassessment and monitoring. Agents with novel mechanisms, favorable pharmacokinetic (PK) profiles including good oral bioavailability, and fungicidal mechanism(s) are urgently needed. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of novel antifungal agents, with both improved known mechanisms of actions and new antifungal classes, currently in clinical development for treating invasive yeast, mold (filamentous fungi), Pneumocystis jirovecii infections, and dimorphic fungi (endemic mycoses). We further focus on inhaled antifungals and the role of immunotherapy in tackling fungal infections, and the specific PK/pharmacodynamic profiles, tissue distributions as well as drug-drug interactions of novel antifungals. Finally, we review antifungal resistance mechanisms, the role of use of antifungal pesticides in agriculture as drivers of drug resistance, and detail detection methods for antifungal resistance.

A Mini-Review of In Vitro Data for Candida Species, Including C. auris, Isolated during Clinical Trials of Three New Antifungals: Fosmanogepix, Ibrexafungerp, and Rezafungin

This mini-review summarizes the clinical outcomes and antifungal susceptibility results, where available, for three new antifungals, including fosmanogepix, ibrexafungerp, and rezafungin, against Candida isolates cultured from patients in clinical trials. When reported, most of the data were generated by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) broth microdilution method or by both the CLSI and European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) methodologies. For fosmanogepix, we summarize the in vitro data for C. auris isolates from 9 patients and for Candida spp. cultured from 20 patients in two clinical trials. Ibrexafungerp has also been evaluated in several clinical trials. From conference proceedings, a total of 176 Candida isolates were evaluated in the FURI and CARES studies, including 18 C. auris isolates (CARES study). However, MIC data are not available for all clinical isolates. Results from the ReSTORE rezafungin phase 3 clinical study also included in vitro results against Candida spp., but no patients with C. auris infections were included. In conclusion, this mini-review summarizes insights regarding clinical outcomes and the in vitro activity of three new antifungals against Candida spp. cultured from patients in clinical trials.

Phase 1 drug-drug interaction study to assess the effect of CYP3A4 inhibition and pan-CYP induction on the pharmacokinetics and safety of fosmanogepix in healthy participants

Immunocompromised patients are susceptible to fungal infections, and drug-drug interactions with antifungals may occur due to concomitant medications. Fosmanogepix [FMGX; active moiety manogepix (MGX)] targets glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored mannoprotein synthesis and maturation, essential for fungal virulence. This phase 1, fixed-sequence study in healthy participants evaluated the effect of strong CYP3A4 inhibitor itraconazole [Cohort 1 (n = 18); FMGX 500 mg intravenous (IV) twice a day (BID )+ itraconazole 200 mg oral once a day (QD)] and pan-CYP inducer rifampin [Cohort 2 (n = 18); FMGX 1,000 mg IV BID + rifampin 600 mg oral QD] on the pharmacokinetics of FMGX and MGX. In cohort 1, geometric mean (GM) MGX Cmax, AUC0-t, and AUCinf were almost similar with and without itraconazole administration. In Cohort 2, GM MGX Cmax was slightly lower and AUC0-t and AUCinf were significantly lower after rifampin administration, with the least squares GM ratio associated 90% confidence intervals (CIs) below 80 - 125% (no effect window). No deaths, serious adverse events (SAEs), or FMGX-related withdrawals were reported. In both cohorts, a total of 188 AEs (n = 30; 186 mild; two moderate) were reported. In all, 37 of 188 AEs (n = 12) were considered FMGX related (most frequent: headache, nausea, and hot flush). Administration of FMGX alone and with itraconazole or rifampin was safe and well tolerated. A strong CYP3A4 inhibitor had no effect on FMGX or MGX exposure. A strong pan-CYP inducer had no effect on FMGX exposure but demonstrated ~45% decrease in MGX exposure.

CLINICAL TRIALS

This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov as NCT04166669 and with EudraCT as number 2019-003586-17.

Fosmanogepix: The Novel Anti-Fungal Agent's Comprehensive Review of in Vitro, in Vivo, and Current Insights From Advancing Clinical Trials

Fosmanogepix, a prodrug of Manogepix (MGX), is a groundbreaking antifungal agent with broad-spectrum activity against yeasts, including Cryptococcus and Candida, as well as molds. It exhibits effectiveness against drug-resistant strains, such as Candida strains resistant to echinocandins and Aspergillus strains resistant to azoles. Furthermore, fosmanogepix shows activity against pathogens that typically resist other classes of drugs, such as Scedosporium, Lomentospora prolificans, and Fusarium, although its efficacy against Mucorales varies. In animal models, fosmanogepix has demonstrated notable effectiveness against disseminated infections caused by various Candida species, Coccidioides immitis, and Fusarium solani. It has also shown efficacy in pulmonary infection models involving Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus flavus, Scedosporium prolificans, Scedosporium apiospermum, and Rhizopus arrhizus. Clinical trials have revealed excellent oral bioavailability (>90%), enabling a seamless transition between intravenous and oral formulations without compromising blood concentrations. Fosmanogepix exhibits favorable profiles in terms of drug interactions, tolerability, and extensive distribution in various tissues, making it an appealing choice for treating invasive fungal infections. This comprehensive review aims to examine the outcomes of published data on fosmanogepix, encompassing in vitro, in vivo, and clinical investigations.

Novel Therapeutic Approaches to Invasive Candidiasis: Considerations for the Clinician

Invasive candidiasis (IC), due to the yeast pathogen Candida, is still a major cause of in-hospital morbidity and mortality. The limited number of antifungal drug classes and the emergence of multi-resistant Candida species, such as Candida auris and some Candida glabrata isolates, is concerning. However, recent advances in antifungal drug development provide promising perspectives for the therapeutic approach of IC. Notably, three novel antifungal agents, currently in Phase II/III clinical trials, are expected to have an important place for the treatment of IC in the future. Rezafungin is a novel echinocandin with prolonged half-life. Ibrexafungerp and fosmanogepix are two first-in-class antifungal drugs with broad spectrum activity against Candida spp., including C. auris and echinocandin-resistant species. These novel antifungal agents also represent interesting alternative options because of their acceptable oral bioavailability (ibrexafungerp and fosmanogepix) or their large interdose interval (once weekly intravenous administration for rezafungin) for prolonged and/or outpatient treatment of complicated IC. This review discusses the potential place of these novel antifungal drugs for the treatment of IC considering their pharmacologic properties and their preclinical and clinical data.

Assessment of Antifungal Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) analysis is of central importance to the progress of an antifungal agent into clinical use. It is crucial to ensure that preclinical studies give the best possible prediction of the way drugs are likely to behave in a clinical setting. This review details the last 30 years of progress in terms of disease model design, efficacy outcome selection and translational modelling in antifungal PK-PD studies. The principles of how PK-PD parameters inform current clinical practice are also discussed, including a review of how these apply to existing and novel agents.

Pharmacodynamics, Mechanisms of Action and Resistance, and Spectrum of Activity of New Antifungal Agents

Several new antifungals are currently in late-stage development, including those with novel pharmacodynamics/mechanisms of action that represent new antifungal classes (manogepix, olorofim, ATI-2307, GR-2397). Others include new agents within established classes or with mechanisms of action similar to clinically available antifungals (ibrexafungerp, rezafungin, oteseconazole, opelconazole, MAT2203) that have been modified in order to improve certain characteristics, including enhanced pharmacokinetics and greater specificity for fungal targets. Many of the antifungals under development also have activity against Candida and Aspergillus strains that have reduced susceptibility or acquired resistance to azoles and echinocandins, whereas others demonstrate activity against species that are intrinsically resistant to most clinically available antifungals. The tolerability and drug–drug interaction profiles of these new agents also appear to be promising, although the number of human subjects that have been exposed to many of these agents remains relatively small. Overall, these agents have the potential for expanding our antifungal armamentarium and improving clinical outcomes in patients with invasive mycoses.

The Combination Treatment of Fosmanogepix and Liposomal Amphotericin B Is Superior to Monotherapy in Treating Experimental Invasive Mold Infections

Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA), invasive mucormycosis (IM), and invasive fusariosis (IF) are associated with high mortality and morbidity. Fosmanogepix (FMGX) is a first-in-class antifungal in clinical development with demonstrated broad-spectrum activity in animal models of infections. We sought to evaluate the benefit of combination therapy of FMGX plus liposomal amphotericin B (L-AMB) in severe delayed-treatment models of murine IPA, IM, and IF. While FMGX was equally as effective as L-AMB in prolonging the survival of mice infected with IPA, IM, or IF, combination therapy was superior to monotherapy in all three models. These findings were validated by greater reductions in the tissue fungal burdens (determined by quantitative PCR) of target organs in all three models versus the burdens in infected vehicle-treated (placebo) or monotherapy-treated mice. In general, histopathological examination of target organs corroborated the findings for fungal tissue burdens among all treatment arms. Our results show that treatment with the combination of FMGX plus L-AMB demonstrated high survival rates and fungal burden reductions in severe animal models of invasive mold infections, at drug exposures in mice similar to those achieved clinically. These encouraging results warrant further investigation of the FMGX-plus-L-AMB combination treatment for severely ill patients with IPA, IM, and IF.

Drug Resistance and Novel Therapeutic Approaches in Invasive Candidiasis

Candida species are the leading cause of invasive fungal infections worldwide and are associated with acute mortality rates of ~50%. Mortality rates are further augmented in the context of host immunosuppression and infection with drug-resistant Candida species. In this review, we outline antifungal drugs already in clinical use for invasive candidiasis and candidaemia, their targets and mechanisms of resistance in clinically relevant Candida species, encompassing not only classical resistance, but also heteroresistance and tolerance. We describe novel antifungal agents and targets in pre-clinical and clinical development, including their spectrum of activity, antifungal target, clinical trial data and potential in treatment of drug-resistant Candida. Lastly, we discuss the use of combination therapy between conventional and repurposed agents as a potential strategy to combat the threat of emerging resistance in Candida.

Consensus guidelines for the diagnosis and management of invasive fungal disease due to moulds other than Aspergillus in the haematology/oncology setting, 2021

Invasive fungal disease (IFD) due to moulds other than Aspergillus is a significant cause of mortality in patients with malignancies or post haemopoietic stem cell transplantation. The current guidelines focus on the diagnosis and management of the common non-Aspergillus moulds (NAM), such as Mucorales, Scedosporium species (spp.), Lomentospora prolificans and Fusarium spp. Rare but emerging NAM including Paecilomyces variotii, Purpureocillium lilacinum and Scopulariopsis spp. are also reviewed. Culture and histological examination of tissue biopsy specimens remain the mainstay of diagnosis, but molecular methods are increasingly being used. As NAM frequently disseminate, blood cultures and skin examination with biopsy of any suspicious lesions are critically important. Treatment requires a multidisciplinary approach with surgical debridement as a central component. Other management strategies include control of the underlying disease/predisposing factors, augmentation of the host response and the reduction of immunosuppression. Carefully selected antifungal therapy, guided by susceptibility testing, is critical to cure. We also outline novel antifungal agents still in clinical trial which offer substantial potential for improved outcomes in the future. Paediatric recommendations follow those of adults. Ongoing epidemiological research, improvement in diagnostics and the development of new antifungal agents will continue to improve the poor outcomes that have been traditionally associated with IFD due to NAM.

The Antifungal Pipeline: Fosmanogepix, Ibrexafungerp, Olorofim, Opelconazole, and Rezafungin

The epidemiology of invasive fungal infections is changing, with new populations at risk and the emergence of resistance caused by the selective pressure from increased usage of antifungal agents in prophylaxis, empiric therapy, and agriculture. Limited antifungal therapeutic options are further challenged by drug-drug interactions, toxicity, and constraints in administration routes. Despite the need for more antifungal drug options, no new classes of antifungal drugs have become available over the last 2 decades, and only one single new agent from a known antifungal class has been approved in the last decade. Nevertheless, there is hope on the horizon, with a number of new antifungal classes in late-stage clinical development. In this review, we describe the mechanisms of drug resistance employed by fungi and extensively discuss the most promising drugs in development, including fosmanogepix (a novel Gwt1 enzyme inhibitor), ibrexafungerp (a first-in-class triterpenoid), olorofim (a novel dihyroorotate dehydrogenase enzyme inhibitor), opelconazole (a novel triazole optimized for inhalation), and rezafungin (an echinocandin designed to be dosed once weekly). We focus on the mechanism of action and pharmacokinetics, as well as the spectrum of activity and stages of clinical development. We also highlight the potential future role of these drugs and unmet needs.

How urgent is the need for new antifungals?

Introduction: Invasive fungal infection carries a high morbidity, mortality and economic cost. In recent times, a rising incidence of fungal infection and antifungal resistance is occurring which has prompted the development of novel antifungal agents.Areas covered:In this perspective, the authors describe the current status of registered antifungals and their limitations in the treatment of invasive fungal infection. They also go on to describe the new antifungal agents that are in the clinical stage of development and how they might be best utilized in patient care in the future.Expert opinion: The antifungal drug development pipeline has responded to a growing need for new agents to effectively treat fungal disease without concomitant toxicity or issues with drug tolerance. Olorofim (F901318), ibrexafungerp (SCY-078), fosmanogepix (APX001), rezafungin (CD101), oteseconazole (VT-1161), encochleated amphotericin B (MAT2203), nikkomycin Z (NikZ) and ATI-2307 are all in the clinical stage of development and offer great promise in offering clinicians better agents to treat these difficult infections.

Antifungals in Clinical Use and the Pipeline

Over the past 15 years, there has been an increase in the development and utilization of newer antifungal agents. The ideal antifungal, however, in regard to spectrum of activity, pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic properties, development of resistance, safety, and drug interaction profile remains elusive. This article reviews pharmacologic aspects of Food and Drug Administration-approved polyenes, flucytosine, azoles, and echinocandins as well as promising pipeline antifungal agents. Unique properties of these newer agents are highlighted. The clinical role of established and investigational antifungal agents as treatment and/or prevention of invasive fungal infections is discussed.

Manogepix, the Active Moiety of the Investigational Agent Fosmanogepix, Demonstrates In Vitro Activity against Members of the Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium solani Species Complexes

We evaluated the in vitro activity of manogepix against Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium solani species complex (FOSC and FSSC, respectively) isolates per CLSI document M38 broth microdilution methods. Manogepix demonstrated activity against both FOSC (MEC [minimum effective concentration] range, ≤0.015 to 0.03 μg/ml; MIC₅₀ range, ≤0.015 to 0.125 μg/ml) and FSSC (MEC, ≤0.015 μg/ml; MIC₅₀, ≤0.015 to 0.25 μg/ml). Amphotericin B was also active (MIC, 0.25 to 4 μg/ml), whereas the triazoles (MIC, 1 to >16 μg/ml) and micafungin (MEC, ≥8 μg/ml) had limited activity.

Promising Drug Candidates and New Strategies for Fighting against the Emerging Superbug Candida auris

Invasive fungal infections represent an expanding threat to public health. During the past decade, a paradigm shift of candidiasis from Candida albicans to non-albicans Candida species has fundamentally increased with the advent of Candida auris. C. auris was identified in 2009 and is now recognized as an emerging species of concern and underscores the urgent need for novel drug development strategies. In this review, we discuss the genomic epidemiology and the main virulence factors of C. auris. We also focus on the different new strategies and results obtained during the past decade in the field of antifungal design against this emerging C. auris pathogen yeast, based on a medicinal chemist point of view. Critical analyses of chemical features and physicochemical descriptors will be carried out along with the description of reported strategies.

Therapeutic Potential of Fosmanogepix (APX001) for Intra-abdominal Candidiasis: from Lesion Penetration to Efficacy in a Mouse Model

Intra-abdominal candidiasis (IAC) is one of the most common yet underappreciated forms of invasive candidiasis. IAC is difficult to treat, and therapeutic failure and drug-resistant breakthrough infections are common in some institutions despite the use of echinocandins as first-line agents. Fosmanogepix (FMGX, formerly APX001) is a first-in-class antifungal prodrug that can be administered both intravenously and orally. FMGX is currently in phase 2 clinical development for the treatment of life-threatening invasive fungal infections. To explore the pharmacological properties and therapeutic potential of FMGX for IAC, we evaluated both drug penetration and efficacy of the active moiety manogepix (MGX, formerly APX001A) in liver tissues in a clinically relevant IAC mouse model infected with Candida albicans Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI) and laser capture microdissection (LCM)-directed absolute drug quantitation were employed to evaluate drug penetration into liver abscess lesions both spatially and quantitatively. The partitioning of MGX into lesions occurred slowly after a single dose; however, robust accumulation in the lesion was achieved after 3 days of repeated dosing. Associated with this drug penetration pattern, reduction in fungal burden and clearance in the liver were observed in mice receiving the multiday FMGX regimen. In comparison, administration of micafungin resulted in marginal reduction in fungal burden at the end of 4 days of treatment. These results suggest that FMGX is a promising candidate for the treatment of IAC.

Efficacy and Pharmacokinetics of Fosmanogepix (APX001) in the Treatment of Candida Endophthalmitis and Hematogenous Meningoencephalitis in Nonneutropenic Rabbits

Candida endophthalmitis is a serious sight-threatening complication of candidemia that may occur before or during antifungal therapy. Hematogenous Candida meningoencephalitis (HCME) is also a serious manifestation of disseminated candidiasis in premature infants, immunosuppressed children, and immunocompromised adults. We evaluated the antifungal efficacy and pharmacokinetics of the prodrug fosmanogepix (APX001) in a rabbit model of endophthalmitis/HCME. Manogepix (APX001A), the active moiety of prodrug fosmanogepix, inhibits the fungal enzyme Gwt1 and is highly active in vitro and in vivo against Candida spp., Aspergillus spp., and other fungal pathogens. Plasma pharmacokinetics of manogepix after oral administration of fosmanogepix on day 6 at 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg resulted in maximum concentration of drug in plasma (C _max) of 3.96 ± 0.41, 4.14  ± 1.1, and 11.5 ± 1.1 μg/ml, respectively, and area under the concentration-time curve from 0 to 12 h (AUC_0-12) of 15.8 ± 3.1, 30.8 ± 5.0, 95.9 ± 14 μg·h/ml, respectively. Manogepix penetrated the aqueous humor, vitreous, and choroid with liquid-to-plasma ratios ranging from 0.19 to 0.52, 0.09 to 0.12, and 0.02 to 0.04, respectively. These concentrations correlated with a significant decrease in Candida albicans burden in vitreous (>10¹ to 10³ log CFU/g) and choroid (>10¹ to 10³ log CFU/g) (P ≤ 0.05 and P ≤ 0.001, respectively). The aqueous humor had no detectable C. albicans in treatment and control groups. The tissue/plasma concentration ratios of manogepix in meninges, cerebrum, cerebellum, and spinal cord were approximately 1:1, which correlated with a >10² to 10⁴ decline of C. albicans in tissue versus control (P ≤ 0.05). Serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) (1→3)-β-d-glucan levels demonstrated significant declines in response to fosmanogepix treatment. These findings provide an experimental foundation for fosmanogepix in treatment of Candida endophthalmitis and HCME and derisk the clinical trials of candidemia and invasive candidiasis.

Fosmanogepix: A Review of the First-in-Class Broad Spectrum Agent for the Treatment of Invasive Fungal Infections

Fosmanogepix is a first-in-class antifungal currently in Phase 2 clinical trials for the treatment of invasive fungal infections caused by Candida, Aspergillus and rare molds. Fosmanogepix is the N-phosphonooxymethylene prodrug of manogepix, an inhibitor of the fungal enzyme Gwt1. Manogepix demonstrates broad spectrum in vitro activity against yeasts and molds, including difficult to treat pathogens. Because of its novel mechanism of action, manogepix retains potency against many resistant strains including echinocandin-resistant Candida and azole-resistant Aspergillus. Manogepix is also active against pathogens that demonstrate intrinsic resistance to other drug classes, such as Scedosporium, Lomentospora prolificans, and Fusarium with variable activity against Mucorales. Fosmanogepix demonstrates significant in vivo efficacy in mouse and rabbit disseminated infection models due to C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. auris, C. tropicalis, Coccidioides immitis, and F. solani as well as pulmonary infection models of A. fumigatus, A. flavus, S. prolificans, S. apiospermum and Rhizopus arrhizus. Clinical trials demonstrated high oral bioavailability (>90%), enabling switching between fosmanogepix intravenous and oral formulations without compromising blood levels. Favorable drug-drug interaction, tolerability, and wide tissue distribution profiles are observed making fosmanogepix an attractive option for the treatment of invasive fungal infections. This systematic review summarizes the findings of published data on fosmanogepix.

Medicinal Chemistry Optimization of a Diaminopurine Chemotype: Toward a Lead for Trypanosoma brucei Inhibitors

Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), or sleeping sickness, is caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei and transmitted through the bite of infected tsetse flies. The disease is considered fatal if left untreated. To identify new chemotypes against Trypanosoma brucei, previously we identified 797 potent kinase-targeting inhibitors grouped into 59 clusters plus 53 singleton compounds with at least 100-fold selectivity over HepG2 cells. From this set of hits, a cluster of diaminopurine-derived compounds was identified. Herein, we report our medicinal chemistry investigation involving the exploration of structure-activity and structure-property relationships around one of the high-throughput screening (HTS) hits, N²-(thiophen-3-yl)-N⁶-(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl)-9H-purine-2,6-diamine (1, NEU-1106). This work led to the identification of a potent lead compound (4aa, NEU-4854) with improved in vitro absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) properties, which was progressed into proof-of-concept translation of in vitro antiparasitic activity to in vivo efficacy.

Recent Progress in the Discovery of Antifungal Agents Targeting the Cell Wall

Due to the limit of available treatments and the emergence of drug resistance in the clinic, invasive fungal infections are an intractable problem with high morbidity and mortality. The cell wall, as a fungi-specific structure, is an appealing target for the discovery and development of novel and low-toxic antifungal agents. In an attempt to accelerate the discovery of novel cell wall targeted drugs, this Perspective will provide a comprehensive review of the progress made to date on the development of fungal cell wall inhibitors. Specifically, this review will focus on the targets, discovery process, chemical structures, antifungal activities, and structure-activity relationships. Although two types of cell wall antifungal agents are clinically available or in clinical trials, it is still a long way for the other cell wall targeted inhibitors to be translated into clinical applications. Future efforts should be focused on the identification of inhibitors against novel conserved cell wall targets.

Fosmanogepix (APX001) Is Effective in the Treatment of Pulmonary Murine Mucormycosis Due to Rhizopus arrhizus

Mucormycosis is a life-threatening infection with high mortality that occurs predominantly in immunocompromised patients. Manogepix (MGX) is a novel antifungal that targets Gwt1, a protein involved in an early step in the conserved glycosylphosphotidyl inositol (GPI) posttranslational modification pathway of surface proteins in eukaryotic cells. Inhibition of fungal inositol acylation by MGX results in pleiotropic effects, including inhibition of maturation of GPI-anchored proteins necessary for growth and virulence.

Mucormycosis is a life-threatening infection with high mortality that occurs predominantly in immunocompromised patients. Manogepix (MGX) is a novel antifungal that targets Gwt1, a protein involved in an early step in the conserved glycosylphosphotidyl inositol (GPI) posttranslational modification pathway of surface proteins in eukaryotic cells. Inhibition of fungal inositol acylation by MGX results in pleiotropic effects, including inhibition of maturation of GPI-anchored proteins necessary for growth and virulence. MGX has been previously shown to have in vitro activity against some strains of Mucorales. Here, we assessed the in vivo activity of the prodrug fosmanogepix, currently in clinical development for the treatment of invasive fungal infections, against two Rhizopus arrhizus strains with high (4.0 μg/ml) and low (0.25 μg/ml) minimum effective concentration (MEC) values. In both invasive pulmonary infection models, treatment of mice with 78 mg/kg or 104 mg/kg fosmanogepix, along with 1-aminobenzotriazole to enhance the serum half-life of MGX in mice, significantly increased median survival time and prolonged overall survival by day 21 postinfection compared to placebo. In addition, administration of fosmanogepix resulted in a 1 to 2 log reduction in both lung and brain fungal burden. For the 104 mg/kg fosmanogepix dose, tissue clearance and survival were comparable to clinically relevant doses of isavuconazole (ISA), which is FDA approved for the treatment of mucormycosis. These results support continued development of fosmanogepix as a first-in-class treatment for invasive mucormycosis.

Enhanced Efflux Pump Expression in Candida Mutants Results in Decreased Manogepix Susceptibility

Manogepix is a broad-spectrum antifungal agent that inhibits glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor biosynthesis. Using whole-genome sequencing, we characterized two efflux-mediated mechanisms in the fungal pathogens Candida albicans and Candida parapsilosis that resulted in decreased manogepix susceptibility. In C. albicans, a gain-of-function mutation in the transcription factor gene ZCF29 activated expression of ATP-binding cassette transporter genes CDR11 and SNQ2.

Manogepix is a broad-spectrum antifungal agent that inhibits glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor biosynthesis. Using whole-genome sequencing, we characterized two efflux-mediated mechanisms in the fungal pathogens Candida albicans and Candida parapsilosis that resulted in decreased manogepix susceptibility. In C. albicans, a gain-of-function mutation in the transcription factor gene ZCF29 activated expression of ATP-binding cassette transporter genes CDR11 and SNQ2. In C. parapsilosis, a mitochondrial deletion activated expression of the major facilitator superfamily transporter gene MDR1.

Fosmanogepix (APX001) Is Effective in the Treatment of Immunocompromised Mice Infected with Invasive Pulmonary Scedosporiosis or Disseminated Fusariosis

There are limited treatment options for immunosuppressed patients with lethal invasive fungal infections due to Fusarium and Scedosporium. Manogepix (MGX; APX001A) is a novel antifungal that targets the conserved Gwt1 enzyme required for localization of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored mannoproteins in fungi. We evaluated the in vitro activity of MGX and the efficacy of the prodrug fosmanogepix (APX001) in immunosuppressed murine models of hematogenously disseminated fusariosis and pulmonary scedosporiosis.

There are limited treatment options for immunosuppressed patients with lethal invasive fungal infections due to Fusarium and Scedosporium. Manogepix (MGX; APX001A) is a novel antifungal that targets the conserved Gwt1 enzyme required for localization of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored mannoproteins in fungi. We evaluated the in vitro activity of MGX and the efficacy of the prodrug fosmanogepix (APX001) in immunosuppressed murine models of hematogenously disseminated fusariosis and pulmonary scedosporiosis. The MGX minimum effective concentration (MEC) for Scedosporium isolates was 0.03 μg/ml and ranged from 0.015 to 0.03 μg/ml for Fusarium isolates. In the scedosporiosis model, treatment of mice with 78 mg/kg and 104 mg/kg of body weight fosmanogepix, along with 1-aminobenzotriazole (ABT) to enhance the serum half-life of MGX, significantly increased median survival time versus placebo from 7 days to 13 and 11 days, respectively. Furthermore, administration of 104 mg/kg fosmanogepix resulted in an ∼2-log₁₀ reduction in lung, kidney, or brain conidial equivalents/gram tissue (CE). Similarly, in the fusariosis model, 78 mg/kg and 104 mg/kg fosmanogepix plus ABT enhanced median survival time from 7 days to 12 and 10 days, respectively. A 2- to 3-log₁₀ reduction in kidney and brain CE was observed. In both models, reduction in tissue fungal burden was corroborated with histopathological data, with target organs showing reduced or no abscesses in fosmanogepix-treated mice. Survival and tissue clearance were comparable to a clinically relevant high dose of liposomal amphotericin B (10 to 15 mg/kg). Our data support the continued development of fosmanogepix as a first-in-class treatment for infections caused by these rare molds.

Hope on the Horizon: Novel Fungal Treatments in Development

The treatment of invasive fungal infections remains challenging due to limitations in currently available antifungal therapies including toxicity, interactions, restricted routes of administration, and drug resistance. This review focuses on novel therapies in clinical development, including drugs and a device. These drugs have novel mechanisms of action to overcome resistance, and some offer new formulations providing distinct advantages over current therapies to improve safety profiles and reduce interactions. Among agents that target the cell wall, 2 glucan synthesis inhibitors are discussed (rezafungin and ibrexafungerp), as well as fosmanogepix and nikkomycin Z. Agents that target the cell membrane include 3 fourth-generation azoles, oral encochleated amphotericin B, and aureobasidin A. Among agents with intracellular targets, we will review olorofim, VL-2397, T-2307, AR-12, and MGCD290. In addition, we will describe neurapheresis, a device used as adjunctive therapy for cryptococcosis. With a field full of novel treatments for fungal infections, the future looks promising.

Evaluation of Resistance Development to the Gwt1 Inhibitor Manogepix (APX001A) in Candida Species

Manogepix (MGX) targets the conserved fungal Gwt1 enzyme required for acylation of inositol early in the glycosylphosphatidylinositol biosynthesis pathway. The prodrug fosmanogepix is currently in clinical development for the treatment of invasive fungal infections. We determined that the median frequencies of spontaneous mutations conferring reduced susceptibility to MGX in Candida albicans, C. glabrata, and C. parapsilosis ranged from 3 × 10-8 to <1.85 × 10-8 Serial passage on agar identified mutants of C. albicans and C. parapsilosis with reduced susceptibility to MGX; however, this methodology did not result in C. glabrata mutants with reduced susceptibility. Similarly, serial passage in broth resulted in ≤2-fold changes in population MIC values for C. tropicalis, C. auris, and C. glabrata A spontaneous V163A mutation in the Gwt1 protein of C. glabrata and a corresponding C. albicans heterozygous V162A mutant were obtained. A C. glabrata V163A Gwt1 mutant generated using CRISPR, along with V162A and V168A mutants expressed in C. albicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae Gwt1, respectively, all demonstrated reduced susceptibility to MGX versus control strains, suggesting the importance of this valine residue to MGX binding across different species. Cross-resistance to the three major classes of antifungals was evaluated, but no changes in susceptibility to amphotericin B or caspofungin were observed in any mutant. No change was observed in fluconazole susceptibility, with the exception of a single non-Gwt1 mutant, where a 4-fold increase in the fluconazole MIC was observed. MGX demonstrated a relatively low potential for resistance development, consistent with other approved antifungal agents and those in clinical development.

Fungal Cell Wall: Emerging Antifungals and Drug Resistance

The cell wall is an essential component in fungal homeostasis. The lack of a covering wall in human cells makes this component an attractive target for antifungal development. The host environment and antifungal stress can lead to cell wall modifications related to drug resistance. Antifungals targeting the cell wall including the new β-D-glucan synthase inhibitor ibrexafungerp and glycosyl-phosphatidyl Inositol (GPI) anchor pathway inhibitor fosmanogepix are promising weapons against antifungal resistance. The fosmanogepix shows strong in vitro activity against the multidrug-resistant species Candida auris, Fusarium solani, and Lomentospora prolificans. The alternative carbon sources in the infection site change the cell wall β-D-glucan and chitin composition, leading to echinocandin and amphotericin resistance. Candida populations that survive echinocandin exposure develop tolerance and show high chitin content in the cell wall, while fungal species such as Aspergillus flavus with a higher β-D-glucan content may show amphotericin resistance. Therefore understanding fungal cell dynamics has become important not only for host-fungal interactions, but also treatment of fungal infections. This review summarizes recent findings regarding antifungal therapy and development of resistance related to the fungal cell wall of the most relevant human pathogenic species.

Towards the Development of an In vivo Chemical Probe for Cyclin G Associated Kinase (GAK)

SGC-GAK-1 (1) is a potent, selective, cell-active chemical probe for cyclin G-associated kinase (GAK). However, 1 was rapidly metabolized in mouse liver microsomes by cytochrome P450-mediated oxidation, displaying rapid clearance in liver microsomes and in mice, which limited its utility in in vivo studies. Chemical modifications of 1 that improved metabolic stability, generally resulted in decreased GAK potency. The best analog in terms of GAK activity in cells was 6-bromo-N-(1H-indazol-6-yl)quinolin-4-amine (35) (IC₅₀ = 1.4 μM), showing improved stability in liver microsomes while still maintaining a narrow spectrum activity across the kinome. As an alternative to scaffold modifications we also explored the use of the broad-spectrum cytochrome P450 inhibitor 1-aminobenzotriazole (ABT) to decrease intrinsic clearance of aminoquinoline GAK inhibitors. Taken together, these approaches point towards the development of an in vivo chemical probe for the dark kinase GAK.

Efficacy of Delayed Therapy with Fosmanogepix (APX001) in a Murine Model of Candida auris Invasive Candidiasis

The emerging pathogenic yeast Candida auris is associated with antifungal resistance and high mortality. The novel antifungal agent manogepix (APX001A) inhibits glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored protein maturation and has demonstrated activity against numerous pathogenic fungi, including C. auris.

The emerging pathogenic yeast Candida auris is associated with antifungal resistance and high mortality. The novel antifungal agent manogepix (APX001A) inhibits glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored protein maturation and has demonstrated activity against numerous pathogenic fungi, including C. auris. Our objective was to evaluate the in vivo efficacy of fosmanogepix, the N-phosphonooxymethyl prodrug (APX001), following delayed initiation of therapy in a murine model of C. auris invasive candidiasis. Neutropenic mice were intravenously infected with a fluconazole-resistant clinical isolate of C. auris. Twenty-four hours postinoculation, treatment began with vehicle control, fosmanogepix (104 and 130 mg/kg of body weight by intraperitoneal injection three times daily, or intraperitoneal 260 mg/kg twice daily), fluconazole (20 mg/kg by oral gavage once daily), or caspofungin (intraperitoneal 10 mg/kg once daily) and continued for 7 days. Fungal burden was assessed via colony count in the kidneys and brains on day 8 in the fungal burden arm and on day 21 as the mice became moribund in the survival arm. Significant improvements in survival were observed in each group administered fosmanogepix and caspofungin. Similarly, reductions in fungal burden were also observed in both the kidneys and brains of mice treated with the highest dose of fosmanogepix in the fungal burden arm and in each fosmanogepix group and with caspofungin in the survival arm. In contrast, no improvements in survival or reductions in fungal burden were observed in mice treated with fluconazole. These results demonstrate that fosmanogepix is effective in vivo against fluconazole-resistant C. auris even when therapy is delayed.

APX001 Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamic Target Determination against Aspergillus fumigatus in an In Vivo Model of Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis

APX001, the prodrug of APX001A, is a first-in-class antifungal agent that has a potent activity against Aspergillus fumigatus The goal of current study was to determine the pharmacodynamic (PD) index and target of APX001 in an immunocompromised murine model of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis against 6 A. fumigatus isolates. Minimum effective concentration (MEC) values ranged from 0.03 to 0.06 mg/liter. Dose fractionation was performed against isolate AF293 using total doses of APX001 ranging from 81 to 768 mg/kg of body weight/day fractionated into every 3-, 6-, and 8-h regimens over a 96-h treatment duration. Efficacy was assessed by A. fumigatus quantitative PCR (qPCR) of conidial equivalents from lung homogenates. Nonlinear regression analysis using the Hill equation demonstrated that the 24-h area under the concentration-time curve (AUC)/MEC ratio was the pharmacokinetic (PK)/PD index that best correlated with efficacy (coefficient of determination [R ²] = 0.79). Treatment studies with the remaining strains utilized regimens of 40 to 1,536 mg/kg of APX001 administered every 3 h for a 96-h duration. Exposure-response relationships for all strains were similar, and the median free drug AUC/MEC PK/PD targets for stasis and 1-log-kill endpoints were 47.6 and 89.4, respectively. The present studies demonstrated in vitro and in vivo APX001A/APX001 potency against A. fumigatus These results have potential relevance for clinical dose selection and evaluation of susceptibility breakpoints.

The fungal cell wall as a target for the development of new antifungal therapies

In the past three decades invasive mycoses have globally emerged as a persistent source of healthcare-associated infections. The cell wall surrounding the fungal cell opposes the turgor pressure that otherwise could produce cell lysis. Thus, the cell wall is essential for maintaining fungal cell shape and integrity. Given that this structure is absent in host mammalian cells, it stands as an important target when developing selective compounds for the treatment of fungal infections. Consequently, treatment with echinocandins, a family of antifungal agents that specifically inhibits the biosynthesis of cell wall (1-3)β-D-glucan, has been established as an alternative and effective antifungal therapy. However, the existence of many pathogenic fungi resistant to single or multiple antifungal families, together with the limited arsenal of available antifungal compounds, critically affects the effectiveness of treatments against these life-threatening infections. Thus, new antifungal therapies are required. Here we review the fungal cell wall and its relevance in biotechnology as a target for the development of new antifungal compounds, disclosing the most promising cell wall inhibitors that are currently in experimental or clinical development for the treatment of some invasive mycoses.

APX001 and Other Gwt1 Inhibitor Prodrugs Are Effective in Experimental Coccidioides immitis Pneumonia

Coccidioidomycosis is a systemic fungal infection caused by the inhalation of the arthroconidia of either of two closely related dimorphic fungi, Coccidioides immitis and C. posadasii, that are endemic in the southwestern United States and other areas in the Western Hemisphere. Chronic cavitary pulmonary infections and extrapulmonary sites of infection are very difficult to treat and often require lifelong azole therapy. APX001A is the first in a new class of broad-spectrum antifungal agents that inhibit Gwt1, an enzyme which is required for cell wall localization of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored mannoproteins in fungi. APX001A and several analogs were highly active against clinical isolates of Coccidioides, inhibiting hyphal growth at low nanogram/ml concentrations. APX001 is the N-phosphonooxymethyl prodrug of APX001A, currently in clinical trials for the treatment of invasive fungal infections. Mice were treated orally once daily with 26 mg/kg/day of APX001 and the prodrug analog APX2097, 2 h after administration of the pan-cytochrome P450 inhibitor 1-aminobenzotriazole, which was used to enhance drug half-life and exposures to more closely mimic human pharmacokinetics of APX001A. Five days of treatment reduced lung colony counts by nearly 3 logs and prevented dissemination, similar to the efficacy of fluconazole dosed orally at 25 mg/kg twice daily. In a survival experiment, both APX001- and APX2097-treated mice survived significantly longer than control and fluconazole-treated mice. APX001 and other members of this new class of antifungal agents may offer great promise as effective therapies for coccidioidomycosis.

APX001 Is Effective in the Treatment of Murine Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis

Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) due to Aspergillus fumigatus is a serious fungal infection in the immunosuppressed patient population. Despite the introduction of new antifungal agents, mortality rates remain high, and new treatments are needed.

Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) due to Aspergillus fumigatus is a serious fungal infection in the immunosuppressed patient population. Despite the introduction of new antifungal agents, mortality rates remain high, and new treatments are needed. The novel antifungal APX001A targets the conserved Gwt1 enzyme required for the localization of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored mannoproteins in fungi. We evaluated the in vitro activity of APX001A against A. fumigatus and the in vivo activity of its prodrug APX001 in an immunosuppressed mouse model of IPA. APX001A inhibited the growth of A. fumigatus with a minimum effective concentration of 0.03 μg/ml. The use of 50 mg/kg 1-aminobenzotriazole (ABT), a suicide inhibitor of cytochrome P450 enzymes, enhanced APX001A exposures (area under the time-concentration curve [AUC]) 16- to 18-fold and enhanced serum half-life from ∼1 to 9 h, more closely mimicking human pharmacokinetics. We evaluated the efficacy of APX001 (with ABT) in treating murine IPA compared to posaconazole treatment. Treatment of mice with 78 mg/kg once daily (QD), 78 mg/kg twice daily, or 104 mg/kg QD APX001 significantly enhanced the median survival time and prolonged day 21 postinfection overall survival compared to the placebo. Furthermore, administration of APX001 resulted in a significant reduction in lung fungal burden (4.2 to 7.6 log₁₀ conidial equivalents/g of tissue) versus the untreated control and resolved the infection, as judged by histopathological examination. The observed survival and tissue clearance were comparable to a clinically relevant posaconazole dose. These results warrant the continued development of APX001 as a broad-spectrum, first-in-class treatment of invasive fungal infections.