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Tocchetti A, Iorio M, Hamid Z, Armirotti A, Reggiani A, Donadio S. Understanding the Mechanism of Action of NAI-112, a Lanthipeptide with Potent Antinociceptive Activity. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26226764. [PMID: 34833857 PMCID: PMC8624038 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26226764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Revised: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
NAI-112, a glycosylated, labionine-containing lanthipeptide with weak antibacterial activity, has demonstrated analgesic activity in relevant mouse models of nociceptive and neuropathic pain. However, the mechanism(s) through which NAI-112 exerts its analgesic and antibacterial activities is not known. In this study, we analyzed changes in the spinal cord lipidome resulting from treatment with NAI-112 of naive and in-pain mice. Notably, NAI-112 led to an increase in phosphatidic acid levels in both no-pain and pain models and to a decrease in lysophosphatidic acid levels in the pain model only. We also showed that NAI-112 can form complexes with dipalmitoyl-phosphatidic acid and that Staphylococcus aureus can become resistant to NAI-112 through serial passages at sub-inhibitory concentrations of the compound. The resulting resistant mutants were phenotypically and genotypically related to vancomycin-insensitive S. aureus strains, suggesting that NAI-112 binds to the peptidoglycan intermediate lipid II. Altogether, our results suggest that NAI-112 binds to phosphate-containing lipids and blocks pain sensation by decreasing levels of lysophosphatidic acid in the TRPV1 pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marianna Iorio
- Naicons Srl, Viale Ortles 22/4, 20139 Milan, Italy; (A.T.); (S.D.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Zeeshan Hamid
- D3 Validation, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30, 16163 Genoa, Italy; (Z.H.); (A.R.)
| | - Andrea Armirotti
- Analytical Chemistry Lab, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30, 16163 Genoa, Italy;
| | - Angelo Reggiani
- D3 Validation, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30, 16163 Genoa, Italy; (Z.H.); (A.R.)
| | - Stefano Donadio
- Naicons Srl, Viale Ortles 22/4, 20139 Milan, Italy; (A.T.); (S.D.)
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2
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Upert G, Luther A, Obrecht D, Ermert P. Emerging peptide antibiotics with therapeutic potential. MEDICINE IN DRUG DISCOVERY 2021; 9:100078. [PMID: 33398258 PMCID: PMC7773004 DOI: 10.1016/j.medidd.2020.100078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
This review covers some of the recent progress in the field of peptide antibiotics with a focus on compounds with novel or established mode of action and with demonstrated efficacy in animal infection models. Novel drug discovery approaches, linear and macrocyclic peptide antibiotics, lipopeptides like the polymyxins as well as peptides addressing targets located in the plasma membrane or in the outer membrane of bacterial cells are discussed.
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Key Words
- ADMET, absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion – toxicity in pharmacokinetics
- AMP, antimicrobial peptide
- AMR, antimicrobial resistance
- ATCC, ATCC cell collection
- Antibiotic
- BAM, β-barrel assembly machinery
- CC50, cytotoxic concentration to kill 50% of cells
- CD, circular dichroism
- CFU, colony forming unit
- CLSI, clinical and laboratory standards institute
- CMS, colistin methane sulfonate
- DMPC, 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine
- ESKAPE, acronym encompassing six bacterial pathogens (often carrying antibiotic resistance): Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumonia, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter spp
- FDA, U. S. Food and Drug Administration
- HABP, hospital acquired bacterial pneumonia
- HDP, host-defense peptide
- HEK293, human embryonic kidney 293 cells
- HK-2, human kidney 2 cells (proximal tubular cell line)
- HepG2, human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line
- Hpg, 4-hydroxy-phenyl glycine
- ITC, isothermal titration calorimetry
- KPC, Klebsiella pneumoniae metallo-β-lactamase C resistant
- LPS, lipopolysaccharide
- LptA, lipopolysaccharide transport protein A
- LptC, lipopolysaccharide transport protein C
- LptD, lipopolysaccharide transport protein D
- MDR, multidrug-resistant
- MH-I, Müller-Hinton broth I
- MH-II, Müller-Hinton broth II (cation adjusted)
- MIC, minimal inhibitory concentration
- MRSA, methicilline-resistant S. aureus
- MSSA, methicilline-sensitive S. aureus
- MoA, mechanism (mode) of action
- NDM-1, New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase resistant
- NOAEL, no adverse effect level
- ODL, odilorhabdin
- OMPTA (outer membrane targeting antibiotic)
- OMPTA, outer membrane targeting antibiotic
- Omp, outer membrane protein
- PBMC, peripheral mononuclear blood cell
- PBP, penicillin-binding protein
- PBS, phosphate-buffered saline
- PK, pharmacokinetics
- POPC, 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine
- POPG, 2-oleoyl-1-palmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1-glycerol)
- PrAMPs, polyproline antimicrobial peptides
- RBC, red blood cell
- SAR, structure-activity relationship
- SPR, surface plasmon resonance
- SPase I, signal peptidase I
- VABP, ventilator associated bacterial pneumonia
- VIM-1, beta-lactamase 2 (K. pneumoniae)
- VISA, vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus
- VRE, vancomycin-resistant enterococcus
- WHO, World Health Organization
- WT, wild type
- WTA, wall teichoic acid
- XDR, extremely drug-resistant
- antimicrobial peptide
- antimicrobial resistance
- bid, bis in die (two times a day)
- i.p., intraperitoneal
- i.v., intravenous
- lipopeptide
- mITT population, minimal intend-to-treat population
- peptide antibiotic
- s.c., subcutaneous
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory Upert
- Polyphor Ltd, Hegenheimermattweg 125, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
| | - Anatol Luther
- Bachem AG, Hauptstrasse 114, 4416 Bubendorf, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Obrecht
- Polyphor Ltd, Hegenheimermattweg 125, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
| | - Philipp Ermert
- Polyphor Ltd, Hegenheimermattweg 125, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
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3
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Lai CF, Xiao WB, Yan HC, Yang H, Wang LX, Guan H, Peng QJ, Deng ZR, Chen JW, An LK, Shi L. ZTW-41, a Potent Indolizinoquinoline-5,12-Dione Derivative Against Drug-Resistant Staphylococci and Enterococci Bacteria. Microb Drug Resist 2020; 26:100-109. [PMID: 31441704 DOI: 10.1089/mdr.2019.0008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
ZTW-41, an indolizinoquinoline-5,12-dione derivative, was investigated for antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria, especially methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). In our study, the MIC90s (minimum inhibitory concentrations) of ZTW-41 against MRSA (MRSA, n = 200), methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA, n = 100), Enterococcus faecalis (E. faecalis, n = 32), and Enterococcus faecium (E. faecium n = 32) were 0.25, 0.25, 0.125, and 8 μg/mL, respectively, whereas the MBC90s (minimum bactericidal concentrations) were 2, 1, 1, and >32 μg/mL, respectively. ZTW-41 maintained its potency at different pH levels (range 5-9) and in starting inoculum size up to 107 CFU/mL. The presence of human serum (25-75%) increased ZTW-41 MICs by two- to eightfold. Time-kill curves showed that ZTW-41 had bactericidal activity against MRSA, MSSA, and E. faecalis strains within 8 hours, and rebound growth occurred after 8 hours except at higher multiples of the MIC (4 × and 8 × ). In the acute toxicity study, no mortality or signs of toxicity was noted in mice after 14 days of observation at doses <50 mg/kg. ZTW-41 exhibited good selectivity indices (SIs) (SI = IC50/MIC90) ranging from 1.12 to 71.76 against clinical isolates, demonstrating excellent therapeutic selectivity in MRSA, MSSA, and E. faecalis strains. Moreover, the in vivo efficacy (effective dose [ED]50 = 6.59 mg/kg) of ZTW-41 was found comparable with vancomycin. Collectively, our favorable results supported ZTW-41 as a promising investigational candidate for treating drug-resistant bacteria infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chong-Fa Lai
- Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,General Hospital of Southern Theatre Command, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wei-Bin Xiao
- General Hospital of Southern Theatre Command, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hua-Cheng Yan
- Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Southern Theatre Command, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hui Yang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lu-Xia Wang
- General Hospital of Southern Theatre Command, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hui Guan
- General Hospital of Southern Theatre Command, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qiu-Ju Peng
- Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Southern Theatre Command, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhi-Rong Deng
- Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Southern Theatre Command, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jian-Wen Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lin-Kun An
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Design and Evaluation, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lei Shi
- Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,General Hospital of Southern Theatre Command, Guangzhou, China
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4
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de la Cruz M, González I, Parish CA, Onishi R, Tormo JR, Martín J, Peláez F, Zink D, El Aouad N, Reyes F, Genilloud O, Vicente F. Production of Ramoplanin and Ramoplanin Analogs by Actinomycetes. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:343. [PMID: 28321210 PMCID: PMC5337499 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.00343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2016] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Ramoplanin is a glycolipodepsipeptide antibiotic obtained from fermentation of Actinoplanes sp. ATCC 33076 that exhibits activity against clinically important multi-drug-resistant, Gram-positive pathogens including vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE), methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and vancomycin-intermediate resistant Clostridium difficile. It disrupts bacterial cell wall through a unique mechanism of action by sequestering the peptidoglycan intermediate Lipid II and therefore does not show cross-resistance with other antibiotics. However, while demonstrating excellent antimicrobial activity in systemic use in animal models of infection, ramoplanin presents low local tolerability when injected intravenously. As a consequence of this limitation, new derivatives are desirable to overcome this issue. During a natural product screening program developed to discover compounds that disrupt bacterial cell wall synthesis by inhibiting peptidoglycan transglycosylation through binding to the intermediate Lipid II, 49 actinomycete strains were identified by HR-LCMS as producers of ramoplanin-related compounds. The producing strains were isolated from environmental samples collected worldwide comprising both tropical and temperate areas. To assess the diversity of this microbial population, the 49 isolates were initially identified to the genus level on the basis of their micromorphology, and 16S sequencing confirmed the initial identification of the strains. These analyses resulted in the identification of members of genus Streptomyces, as well as representatives of the families Micromonosporaceae, Nocardiaceae, Thermomonosporaceae, and Pseudonocardiaceae, suggesting that the production of ramoplanins is relatively widespread among Actinomycetes. In addition, all of these isolates were tested against a panel of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, filamentous fungi, and yeast in order to further characterize their antimicrobial properties. This work describes the diversity of actinomycete strains that produced ramoplanin-related compounds, and the analysis of the antimicrobial activity exhibited by these isolates. Our results strongly suggest the presence of new ramoplanin-analogs among these actinomycete producers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mercedes de la Cruz
- Fundación MEDINA, Centro de Excelencia en Investigación de Medicamentos Innovadores en Andalucía Granada, Spain
| | - Ignacio González
- Fundación MEDINA, Centro de Excelencia en Investigación de Medicamentos Innovadores en Andalucía Granada, Spain
| | | | | | - José R Tormo
- Fundación MEDINA, Centro de Excelencia en Investigación de Medicamentos Innovadores en Andalucía Granada, Spain
| | - Jesús Martín
- Fundación MEDINA, Centro de Excelencia en Investigación de Medicamentos Innovadores en Andalucía Granada, Spain
| | - Fernando Peláez
- Biotechnology Programme, Spanish National Cancer Research Centre Madrid, Spain
| | - Debbie Zink
- Merck Research Laboratories, Merck Kenilworth, NJ, USA
| | | | - Fernando Reyes
- Fundación MEDINA, Centro de Excelencia en Investigación de Medicamentos Innovadores en Andalucía Granada, Spain
| | - Olga Genilloud
- Fundación MEDINA, Centro de Excelencia en Investigación de Medicamentos Innovadores en Andalucía Granada, Spain
| | - Francisca Vicente
- Fundación MEDINA, Centro de Excelencia en Investigación de Medicamentos Innovadores en Andalucía Granada, Spain
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5
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Han J, Chen J, Shao L, Zhang J, Dong X, Liu P, Chen D. Production of the Ramoplanin Activity Analogue by Double Gene Inactivation. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0154121. [PMID: 27149627 PMCID: PMC4858212 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0154121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2015] [Accepted: 04/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycopeptides such as vancomycin and telavancin are essential for treating infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria. But the dwindling availability of new antibiotics and the emergence of resistant bacteria are making effective antibiotic treatment increasingly difficult. Ramoplanin, an inhibitor of bacterial cell wall biosynthesis, is a highly effective antibiotic against a wide range of Gram-positive bacteria, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, vancomycin-intermediate resistant Clostridium difficile and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus sp. Here, two tailoring enzyme genes in the biosynthesis of ramoplanin were deleted by double in-frame gene knockouts to produce new ramoplanin derivatives. The deschlororamoplanin A2 aglycone was purified and its structure was identified with LC-MS/MS. Deschlororamoplanin A2 aglycone and ramoplanin aglycone showed similar activity to ramoplanin A2. The results showed that α-1,2-dimannosyl disaccharide at Hpg11 and chlorination at Chp17 in the ramoplanin structure are not essential for its antimicrobial activity. This work provides new precursor compounds for the semisynthetic modification of ramoplanin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jungang Han
- State Key Laboratory of New Drug and Pharmaceutical Process, Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, 1320 West Beijing Rd., Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Junsheng Chen
- State Key Laboratory of New Drug and Pharmaceutical Process, Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, 1320 West Beijing Rd., Shanghai 200040, China
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Rd., Minhang District, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Lei Shao
- State Key Laboratory of New Drug and Pharmaceutical Process, Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, 1320 West Beijing Rd., Shanghai 200040, China
- * E-mail: (DC); (LS)
| | - Junliang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of New Drug and Pharmaceutical Process, Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, 1320 West Beijing Rd., Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Xiaojing Dong
- State Key Laboratory of New Drug and Pharmaceutical Process, Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, 1320 West Beijing Rd., Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Pengyu Liu
- State Key Laboratory of New Drug and Pharmaceutical Process, Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, 1320 West Beijing Rd., Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Daijie Chen
- State Key Laboratory of New Drug and Pharmaceutical Process, Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, 1320 West Beijing Rd., Shanghai 200040, China
- * E-mail: (DC); (LS)
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6
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Maffioli SI, Cruz JCS, Monciardini P, Sosio M, Donadio S. Advancing cell wall inhibitors towards clinical applications. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 43:177-84. [PMID: 26515981 DOI: 10.1007/s10295-015-1703-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Natural products represent a major source of approved drugs and still play an important role in supplying chemical diversity. Consistently, 2014 has seen new, natural product-derived antibiotics approved for human use by the US Food and Drug Administration. One of the recently approved second-generation glycopeptides is dalbavancin, a semi-synthetic derivative of the natural product A40,926. This compound inhibits bacterial growth by binding to lipid intermediate II (Lipid II), a key intermediate in peptidoglycan biosynthesis. Like other recently approved antibiotics, dalbavancin has a complex history of preclinical and clinical development, with several companies contributing to different steps in different years. While our work on dalbavancin development stopped at the previous company, intriguingly our current pipeline includes two more Lipid II-binding natural products or derivatives thereof. In particular, we will focus on the properties of NAI-107 and related lantibiotics, which originated from recent screening and characterization efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia I Maffioli
- KtedoGen Srl, Viale Ortles 22/4, 20139, Milan, Italy.,Naicons Srl, Viale Ortles 22/4, 20139, Milan, Italy
| | - João C S Cruz
- KtedoGen Srl, Viale Ortles 22/4, 20139, Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Monciardini
- KtedoGen Srl, Viale Ortles 22/4, 20139, Milan, Italy.,Naicons Srl, Viale Ortles 22/4, 20139, Milan, Italy
| | - Margherita Sosio
- KtedoGen Srl, Viale Ortles 22/4, 20139, Milan, Italy.,Naicons Srl, Viale Ortles 22/4, 20139, Milan, Italy
| | - Stefano Donadio
- KtedoGen Srl, Viale Ortles 22/4, 20139, Milan, Italy. .,Naicons Srl, Viale Ortles 22/4, 20139, Milan, Italy.
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7
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Bactericidal Effects and Mechanism of Action of Olanexidine Gluconate, a New Antiseptic. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2015; 59:4551-9. [PMID: 25987609 DOI: 10.1128/aac.05048-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2014] [Accepted: 05/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Olanexidine gluconate [1-(3,4-dichlorobenzyl)-5-octylbiguanide gluconate] (development code OPB-2045G) is a new monobiguanide compound with bactericidal activity. In this study, we assessed its spectrum of bactericidal activity and mechanism of action. The minimal bactericidal concentrations of the compound for 30-, 60-, and 180-s exposures were determined with the microdilution method using a neutralizer against 320 bacterial strains from culture collections and clinical isolates. Based on the results, the estimated bactericidal olanexidine concentrations with 180-s exposures were 869 μg/ml for Gram-positive cocci (155 strains), 109 μg/ml for Gram-positive bacilli (29 strains), and 434 μg/ml for Gram-negative bacteria (136 strains). Olanexidine was active against a wide range of bacteria, especially Gram-positive cocci, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant enterococci, and had a spectrum of bactericidal activity comparable to that of commercial antiseptics, such as chlorhexidine and povidone-iodine. In vitro experiments exploring its mechanism of action indicated that olanexidine (i) interacts with the bacterial surface molecules, such as lipopolysaccharide and lipoteichoic acid, (ii) disrupts the cell membranes of liposomes, which are artificial bacterial membrane models, (iii) enhances the membrane permeability of Escherichia coli, (iv) disrupts the membrane integrity of S. aureus, and (v) denatures proteins at relatively high concentrations (≥160 μg/ml). These results indicate that olanexidine probably binds to the cell membrane, disrupts membrane integrity, and its bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects are caused by irreversible leakage of intracellular components. At relatively high concentrations, olanexidine aggregates cells by denaturing proteins. This mechanism differs slightly from that of a similar biguanide compound, chlorhexidine.
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Cheng M, Huang JX, Ramu S, Butler MS, Cooper MA. Ramoplanin at bactericidal concentrations induces bacterial membrane depolarization in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58:6819-27. [PMID: 25182650 PMCID: PMC4249368 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00061-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2014] [Accepted: 08/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Ramoplanin is an actinomycetes-derived antibiotic with broad-spectrum activity against Gram-positive bacteria that has been evaluated in clinical trials for the treatment of gastrointestinal vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) and Clostridium difficile infections. Recent studies have proposed that ramoplanin binds to bacterial membranes as a C2 symmetrical dimer that can sequester Lipid II, which causes inhibition of cell wall peptidoglycan biosynthesis and cell death. In this study, ramoplanin was shown to bind to anionic and zwitterionic membrane mimetics with a higher affinity for anionic membranes and to induce membrane depolarization of methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) ATCC 25923 at concentrations at or above the minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC). The ultrastructural effects of ramoplanin on S. aureus were also examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and this showed dramatic changes to bacterial cell morphology. The correlation observed between membrane depolarization and bacterial cell viability suggests that this mechanism may contribute to the bactericidal activity of ramoplanin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mu Cheng
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Johnny X Huang
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Soumya Ramu
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Mark S Butler
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Matthew A Cooper
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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