1
|
O’Connor-Moneley J, Fletcher J, Bean C, Parker J, Kelly SL, Moran GP, Sullivan DJ. Deletion of the Candida albicans TLO gene family results in alterations in membrane sterol composition and fluconazole tolerance. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0308665. [PMID: 39121069 PMCID: PMC11315338 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0308665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2024] [Accepted: 07/27/2024] [Indexed: 08/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Development of resistance and tolerance to antifungal drugs in Candida albicans can compromise treatment of infections caused by this pathogenic yeast species. The uniquely expanded C. albicans TLO gene family is comprised of 14 paralogous genes which encode Med2, a subunit of the multiprotein Mediator complex which is involved in the global control of transcription. This study investigates the acquisition of fluconazole tolerance in a mutant in which the entire TLO gene family has been deleted. This phenotype was reversed to varying degrees upon reintroduction of representative members of the alpha- and beta-TLO clades (i.e. TLO1 and TLO2), but not by TLO11, a gamma-clade representative. Comparative RNA sequencing analysis revealed changes in the expression of genes involved in a range of cellular functions, including ergosterol biosynthesis, mitochondrial function, and redox homeostasis. This was supported by the results of mass spectrometry analysis, which revealed alterations in sterol composition of the mutant cell membrane. Our data suggest that members of the C. albicans TLO gene family are involved in the control of ergosterol biosynthesis and mitochondrial function and may play a role in the responses of C. albicans to azole antifungal agents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James O’Connor-Moneley
- Division of Oral Biosciences, Dublin Dental University Hospital, and School of Dental Science, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Jessica Fletcher
- Division of Oral Biosciences, Dublin Dental University Hospital, and School of Dental Science, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Cody Bean
- Division of Oral Biosciences, Dublin Dental University Hospital, and School of Dental Science, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Josie Parker
- Institute of Life Science, Singleton Campus, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Steven L. Kelly
- Institute of Life Science, Singleton Campus, Swansea University, Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Gary P. Moran
- Division of Oral Biosciences, Dublin Dental University Hospital, and School of Dental Science, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Derek J. Sullivan
- Division of Oral Biosciences, Dublin Dental University Hospital, and School of Dental Science, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
O'Connor-Moneley J, Alaalm L, Moran GP, Sullivan DJ. The role of the Mediator complex in fungal pathogenesis and response to antifungal agents. Essays Biochem 2023; 67:843-851. [PMID: 37013399 PMCID: PMC10500203 DOI: 10.1042/ebc20220238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023]
Abstract
Mediator is a complex of polypeptides that plays a central role in the recruitment of RNA polymerase II to promoters and subsequent transcriptional activation in eukaryotic organisms. Studies have now shown that Mediator has a role in regulating expression of genes implicated in virulence and antifungal drug resistance in pathogenic fungi. The roles of specific Mediator subunits have been investigated in several species of pathogenic fungi, particularly in the most pathogenic yeast Candida albicans. Uniquely, pathogenic yeast also present several interesting examples of divergence in Mediator structure and function, most notably in C. glabrata, which possesses two orthologues of Med15, and in C. albicans, which has a massively expanded family of Med2 orthologues known as the TLO gene family. This review highlights specific examples of recent progress in characterizing the role of Mediator in pathogenic fungi.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James O'Connor-Moneley
- Microbiology Research Unit, Division of Oral Biosciences, Dublin Dental University Hospital, University of Dublin, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Leenah Alaalm
- Microbiology Research Unit, Division of Oral Biosciences, Dublin Dental University Hospital, University of Dublin, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Gary P Moran
- Microbiology Research Unit, Division of Oral Biosciences, Dublin Dental University Hospital, University of Dublin, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Derek J Sullivan
- Microbiology Research Unit, Division of Oral Biosciences, Dublin Dental University Hospital, University of Dublin, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Zhou Z, Yan H, Kim MS, Shim WB. Distinct Function of Mediator Subunits in Fungal Development, Stress Response, and Secondary Metabolism in Maize Pathogen Fusarium verticillioides. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2022; 112:1730-1738. [PMID: 35271780 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-12-21-0495-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Mediator is a nucleus-localized, multisubunit protein complex highly conserved across eukaryotes. It interacts with RNA polymerase II transcription machinery as well as various transcription factors to regulate gene expression. However, systematic characterization of the Mediator complex has not been performed in filamentous fungi. In our study, the goal was to investigate key biological functions of Mediator subunits in a mycotoxigenic plant pathogen Fusarium verticillioides. Although there is some level of divergence in the constituent subunits, the overall structure was conserved between Saccharomyces cerevisiae and F. verticillioides. We generated 11 Mediator subunit deletion mutants and characterized vegetative growth, conidia formation, environmental stress response, carbon and fatty acid use, virulence, and fumonisin B1 (FB1) biosynthesis. Each Mediator subunit deletion mutant showed deficiencies in at least three of the phenotypes tested, suggesting that each subunit has different principal functions in F. verticillioides development, metabolism, and virulence. The deletion of FvMed1 led to increased FB1 production, and we confirmed that FvMed1 is transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm under fumonisin-producing conditions. Taken together, our study characterized various important functional roles for Mediator subunits in F. verticillioides and suggests that select subunits can perform unique cytoplasmic functions independent of the core Mediator in fungal nucleus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zehua Zhou
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, U.S.A
- Hunan Agricultural University, College of Plant Protection & Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Biology and Control of Plant Diseases and Plant Pests, Furong District, Changsha, Hunan 410128, China
| | - Huijuan Yan
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, U.S.A
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, U.S.A
| | - Man S Kim
- Clinical Research Institute, College of Medicine, Kyung Hee University Hospital at Gangdong, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Won Bo Shim
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, U.S.A
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Deletion of cox7c Results in Pan-Azole Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2022; 66:e0015122. [PMID: 35647650 PMCID: PMC9211413 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00151-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In Aspergillus fumigatus, the most prevalent resistance to azoles results from mutational modifications of the azole target protein Cyp51A, but there are non-cyp51A mutants resistant to azoles, and the mechanisms underlying the resistance of these strains remain to be explored. Here, we identified a novel cytochrome c oxidase, cox7c (W56*), nonsense mutation in the laboratory and found that it caused reduced colony growth and resistance to multiantifungal agents. Meanwhile, we revealed that cold storage is responsible for increased tolerance of conidia to itraconazole (ITC) stress, which further advances azole-resistant mutations (cryopreservation→ITC tolerance→azole resistance). The deletion or mutation of cox7c results explicitly in resistance to antifungal-targeting enzymes, including triazoles, polyenes, and allylamines, required for ergosterol synthesis, or resistance to fungal ergosterol. A high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) assay showed that the cox7c knockout strain decreased intracellular itraconazole concentration. In addition, the lack of Cox7c resulted in the accumulation of intracellular heme B. We validated that an endogenous increase in, or the exogenous addition of, heme B was capable of eliciting azole resistance, which was in good accordance with the phenotypic resistance analysis of cox7c mutants. Furthermore, RNA sequencing verified the elevated transcriptional expression levels of multidrug transport genes. Additionally, lower itraconazole-induced reactive oxygen species generation in mycelia of a cox7c-deletion strain suggested that this reduction may, in part, contribute to drug resistance. These findings increase our understanding of how A. fumigatus’s direct responses to azoles promote fungal survival in the environment and address genetic mutations that arise from patients or environments.
Collapse
|
5
|
Wang Y, Wang S, Zeng L, Han Z, Cao J, Wang Y, Zhong G. Long-chain unsaturated fatty acids are involved in the viability and itraconazole susceptibility of Aspergillus fumigatus. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2021; 585:82-88. [PMID: 34800884 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2021.11.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The prevalence of invasive aspergillosis with azole resistance is increasing, but the mechanisms underlying the development of resistance and treatment strategies are still limited. The present work is focused on finding a relationship between long-chain unsaturated fatty acids (LCUFAs), Aspergillus fumigatus development, and antifungal resistance. The effects of LCUFAs on antifungal agents in vitro were determined, and the stearic acid desaturase gene (sdeA) of A. fumigatus was characterized. In in vitro antifungal tests, LCUFAs antagonized the antifungal activity of itraconazole by extracting it from media, thereby preventing it from entering cells. The OA auxotrophic phenotype caused by an sdeA deletion confirmed that SdeA was required for OA biosynthesis in A. fumigatus. Furthermore, several low-level sdeA-overexpressing mutants with impaired vegetative growth phenotypes were successfully constructed. Additionally, an sdeA-overexpressing mutant, OEsdeA-5, showed lowered sensitivity levels to itraconazole. Moreover, RNA sequencing of OEsdeA-5 revealed that the altered gene-expression pattern. Through targeted metabolomics, decreased palmitic acid and stearic acid contents, accompanied by higher palmitoleic acid, margaroleic acid, and OA production levels, were found in OEsdeA-5. This study provides a novel insight of understanding of azole resistance and a potential target for drug development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuanzhou Wang
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Sha Wang
- Key Laboratory of Vector Biology and Pathogen Control of Zhejiang Province, Huzhou Central Hospital, Huzhou University, Huzhou, China
| | - Liping Zeng
- Key Laboratory of Pathogen Biology of Jiangsu Province, Department of Microbiology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Ziyu Han
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jiayi Cao
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yi Wang
- The First Clinical Medical College of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Guowei Zhong
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Souza ACO, Martin-Vicente A, Nywening AV, Ge W, Lowes DJ, Peters BM, Fortwendel JR. Loss of Septation Initiation Network (SIN) kinases blocks tissue invasion and unlocks echinocandin cidal activity against Aspergillus fumigatus. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009806. [PMID: 34370772 PMCID: PMC8376064 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Although considered effective treatment for many yeast fungi, the therapeutic efficacy of the echinocandin class of antifungals for invasive aspergillosis (IA) is limited. Recent studies suggest intense kinase- and phosphatase-mediated echinocandin adaptation in A. fumigatus. To identify A. fumigatus protein kinases required for survival under echinocandin stress, we employed CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene targeting to generate a protein kinase disruption mutant library in a wild type genetic background. Cell wall and echinocandin stress screening of the 118 disruption mutants comprising the library identified only five protein kinase disruption mutants displaying greater than 4-fold decreased echinocandin minimum effective concentrations (MEC) compared to the parental strain. Two of these mutated genes, the previously uncharacterized A. fumigatus sepL and sidB genes, were predicted to encode protein kinases functioning as core components of the Septation Initiation Network (SIN), a tripartite kinase cascade that is necessary for septation in fungi. As the A. fumigatus SIN is completely uncharacterized, we sought to explore these network components as effectors of echinocandin stress survival. Our data show that mutation of any single SIN kinase gene caused complete loss of hyphal septation and increased susceptibility to cell wall stress, as well as widespread hyphal damage and loss of viability in response to echinocandin stress. Strikingly, mutation of each SIN kinase gene also resulted in a profound loss of virulence characterized by lack of tissue invasive growth. Through the deletion of multiple novel regulators of hyphal septation, we show that the non-invasive growth phenotype is not SIN-kinase dependent, but likely due to hyphal septation deficiency. Finally, we also find that echinocandin therapy is highly effective at eliminating residual tissue burden in mice infected with an aseptate strain of A. fumigatus. Together, our findings suggest that inhibitors of septation could enhance echinocandin-mediated killing while simultaneously limiting the invasive potential of A. fumigatus hyphae.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Camila Oliveira Souza
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Translational Science, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Adela Martin-Vicente
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Translational Science, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Ashley V. Nywening
- Integrated Program in Biomedical Sciences, College of Graduate Health Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Wenbo Ge
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Translational Science, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - David J. Lowes
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Translational Science, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Brian M. Peters
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Translational Science, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Biochemistry, College of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Jarrod R. Fortwendel
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Translational Science, College of Pharmacy, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Biochemistry, College of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Chen M, Zhong G, Wang S, Zhu J, Tang L, Li L. tpo3 and dur3, Aspergillus fumigatus Plasma Membrane Regulators of Polyamines, Regulate Polyamine Homeostasis and Susceptibility to Itraconazole. Front Microbiol 2021; 11:563139. [PMID: 33391196 PMCID: PMC7772357 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.563139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus fumigatus is a well-known opportunistic pathogen that causes invasive aspergillosis (IA) infections, which have high mortality rates in immunosuppressed individuals. Long-term antifungal drug azole use in clinical treatment and agriculture results in loss of efficacy or drug resistance. Drug resistance is related to cellular metabolites and the corresponding gene transcription. In this study, through untargeted metabolomics and transcriptomics under itraconazole (ITC) treatment, we identified two plasma membrane-localized polyamine regulators tpo3 and dur3, which were important for polyamine homeostasis and susceptibility to ITC in A. fumigatus. In the absence of tpo3 and/or dur3, the levels of cytoplasmic polyamines had a moderate increase, which enhanced the tolerance of A. fumigatus to ITC. In comparison, overexpression of tpo3 or dur3 induced a drastic increase in polyamines, which increased the sensitivity of A. fumigatus to ITC. Further analysis revealed that polyamines concentration-dependently affected the susceptibility of A. fumigatus to ITC by scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) at a moderate concentration and promoting the production of ROS at a high concentration rather than regulating drug transport. Moreover, inhibition of polyamine biosynthesis reduced the intracellular polyamine content, resulted in accumulation of ROS and enhanced the antifungal activity of ITC. Interestingly, A. fumigatus produces much lower levels of ROS under voriconazole (VOC) treatment than under ITC-treatment. Accordingly, our study established the link among the polyamine regulators tpo3 and dur3, polyamine homeostasis, ROS content, and ITC susceptibility in A. fumigatus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mingcong Chen
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Guowei Zhong
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Sha Wang
- Key Laboratory of Vector Biology and Pathogen Control of Zhejiang Province, Huzhou Central Hospital, Huzhou University, Huzhou, China
| | - Jun Zhu
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Lei Tang
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Lei Li
- Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Wang N, Gao J, Yuan L, Jin Y, He G. Metabolomics profiling during biofilm development of Bacillus licheniformis isolated from milk powder. Int J Food Microbiol 2020; 337:108939. [PMID: 33160113 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2020.108939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Bacillus licheniformis is a major source of microbial contamination to dairy industry, and biofilm formation by this spoilage bacterium aggravates the safety issues. Especially for milk powder manufactures, the evaporation process at temperatures between 50 °C and 70 °C before spray drying, is a critical control point against thermophilic bacteria multiplication. In our study, metabolomics analysis was performed to investigate dynamic changes of the metabolites and their roles during process of biofilm development of B. licheniformis at 55 °C for 24 h. Amino acid metabolism was quite active, with cooperation from lipid metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism and nucleotide metabolism. Amino acid biosynthesis provided significant contributions especially during early biofilm development from 8 to 12 h. Metabolites involved in specific pathways of arginine biosynthetic, galactose metabolism and sphingolipid metabolism played a crucial role in building biofilm. This work provided new insights into dynamic metabolic alternations and a comprehensive network during B. licheniformis biofilm development, which will extend the knowledge on the metabolic process of biofilm formation by B. licheniformis. The results are helpful in creating better environmental hygiene in dairy processing and new strategies for ensuring quality of dairy products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ni Wang
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jie Gao
- College of Food Science and Technology, Hebei Agriculture University, Baoding 071000, China
| | - Lei Yuan
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225127, China
| | - Yujie Jin
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Guoqing He
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Precise Expression of Afmed15 Is Crucial for Asexual Development, Virulence, and Survival of Aspergillus fumigatus. mSphere 2020; 5:5/5/e00771-20. [PMID: 33028685 PMCID: PMC7568654 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00771-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The identification and characterization of regulators essential for virulence or development constitute one approach for antifungal drug development. In this study, we screened and functionally characterized Afmed15, a novel developmental regulator in A. fumigatus. We demonstrate that the precise transcriptional expression of Afmed15 is crucial for fungal asexual development, virulence, and survival. Downregulating the expression of Afmed15 abolished the conidiation and decreased the fungal virulence in an insect model. In contrast, the overexpression of Afmed15 caused fungal death accompanied by intensive autophagy. Our study provides a foundation for further studies to identify compounds perturbing the expression of Afmed15 that may be used for the prevention of invasive A. fumigatus infections. The rise of drug resistance in fungal pathogens is becoming a serious problem owing to the limited number of antifungal drugs available. Identifying and targeting factors essential for virulence or development unique to fungal pathogens is one approach to develop novel treatments for fungal infections. In this study, we present the identification and functional characterization of a novel developmental regulator in Aspergillus fumigatus, AfMed15, which contained a conserved Med15_fungal domain, as determined by screening of a mutant library that contained more than 2,000 hygromycin-resistant A. fumigatus transformants. Downregulating the expression of Afmed15 abolished the conidiation and decreased the fungal virulence in an insect model. Strikingly, the overexpression of Afmed15 caused fungal death accompanied by intensive autophagy. RNA sequencing of an Afmed15 overexpression strain revealed that altered gene expression patterns were associated with carbon metabolism, energy metabolism, and translation. Interestingly, the addition of metal ions could partially rescue fungal death caused by the overexpression of Afmed15, indicating that disordered ion homeostasis is a potential reason for the fungal death caused by the overexpression of Afmed15. Considering that the precise expression of Afmed15 is crucial for fungal development, virulence, and survival and that no ortholog was found in humans, Afmed15 is an ideal target for antifungal-drug development. IMPORTANCE The identification and characterization of regulators essential for virulence or development constitute one approach for antifungal drug development. In this study, we screened and functionally characterized Afmed15, a novel developmental regulator in A. fumigatus. We demonstrate that the precise transcriptional expression of Afmed15 is crucial for fungal asexual development, virulence, and survival. Downregulating the expression of Afmed15 abolished the conidiation and decreased the fungal virulence in an insect model. In contrast, the overexpression of Afmed15 caused fungal death accompanied by intensive autophagy. Our study provides a foundation for further studies to identify compounds perturbing the expression of Afmed15 that may be used for the prevention of invasive A. fumigatus infections.
Collapse
|