Comparative study of once-weekly azithromycin and once-daily amoxicillin treatments in prevention of recurrent acute otitis media in children

Updated Guidelines for the Management of Acute Otitis Media in Children by the Italian Society of Pediatrics: Prevention

BACKGROUND

In recent years, new information has been acquired regarding the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of acute otitis media (AOM). The Italian Pediatric Society, therefore, decided to issue an update to the Italian Pediatric Society guidelines published in 2010.

METHODS

The search was conducted on Pubmed, and only those studies regarding the pediatric age alone, in English or Italian, published between January 1, 2010 and December 31, 2018, were included. Each study included in the review was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations (GRADE) methodology. The quality of the systematic reviews was evaluated using the A MeaSurement Tool to Assess systematic Reviews (AMSTAR) 2 appraisal tool. The guidelines were formulated using the GRADE methodology by a multidisciplinary panel of experts.

RESULTS

The importance of eliminating risk factors (passive smoking, environmental pollution, use of pacifier, obesity, limitation of day-care center attendance) and the promotion of breastfeeding and hygiene practices (nasal lavages) was confirmed. The importance of pneumococcal vaccination in the prevention of AOM was reiterated with regard to the prevention of both the first episode of AOM and recurrences. Grommets can be inserted in selected cases of recurrent AOM that did not respond to all other prevention strategies. Antibiotic prophylaxis is not recommended for the prevention of recurrent AOM, except in certain carefully selected cases. The use of complementary therapies, probiotics, xylitol and vitamin D is not recommended.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevention of episodes of AOM requires the elimination of risk factors and pneumococcal and influenza vaccination. The use of other products such as probiotics and vitamin D is not supported by adequate evidence.

Management of recurrent acute otitis media in children: systematic review of the effect of different interventions on otitis media recurrence, recurrence frequency and total recurrence time

OBJECTIVE

To conduct a systematic review comparing the effect of three interventions (prophylactic antibiotics, tympanostomy tube insertion and adenoidectomy) on otitis media recurrence, recurrence frequency and total recurrence time.

METHODS

Literature on recurrent otitis media was identified using the PubMed and Scopus search engines for the period January 1990 to March 2011. A hand search of the reference lists of relevant articles and textbooks was conducted to identify additional studies. Randomised, controlled trials with a minimum of 40 children and follow up of at least 12 months were included.

RESULTS

Eighteen publications were identified. Each was assessed using preset inclusion criteria; seven publications met these criteria.

CONCLUSION

Prophylactic antibiotics are effective in reducing otitis media recurrence, recurrence frequency and total recurrence time. Tympanostomy tube insertion failed to reduce the prevalence of otitis media recurrence, but reduced the recurrence frequency and total recurrence time. Adenoidectomy reduced otitis media recurrence; results on otitis media recurrence frequency differed but on average there was a reduction; however, the two studies with relevant data on total recurrence time had contradictory results.

Lack of efficacy of long-term, low-dose azithromycin in chronic rhinosinusitis: a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

In persistent chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS), conventional treatment is often insufficient. Long-term, low-dose administration of macrolides has been suggested as a treatment option. The MACS (Macrolides in chronic rhinosinusitis) study is a randomized placebo-controlled trial evaluating the efficacy of azithromycin (AZM) in CRS.

METHODS

We describe a group of patients with recalcitrant CRS with and without nasal polyps unresponsive to optimal medical and (in 92% also) surgical treatment. Patients were treated with AZM or placebo. AZM was given for 3 days at 500 mg during the first week, followed by 500 mg per week for the next 11 weeks. Patients were monitored until 3 months post-therapy. The assessments included Sino-Nasal Outcome Test-22 (SNOT-22), a Patient Response Rating Scale, Visual Analogue Scale (VAS), Short Form-36 (SF-36), rigid nasal endoscopy, peak nasal inspiratory flow (PNIF), Sniffin' Sticks smell tests and endoscopically guided middle meatus cultures.

RESULTS

Sixty patients with a median age of 49 years were included. Fifty per cent had asthma and 58% had undergone revision sinus surgery. In the SNOT-22, Patient Response Rating Scale, VAS scores and SF-36, no significant difference between the AZM and the placebo groups was demonstrated. Nasal endoscopic findings, PNIF results, smell tests and microbiology showed no relevant significant differences between the groups either.

CONCLUSION

At the investigated dose of AZM over 3 months, no significant benefit was found over placebo. Possible reasons could be disease severity in the investigated group, under-dosage of AZM and under-powering of the study. Therefore, more research is urgently required.

Palliative care for the patient with refractory chronic rhinosinusitis

Most otolaryngologists encounter patients with chronic rhinosinusitis who, despite conventional medical and surgical therapy, fail to show significant symptomatic improvement. Many paradigms have been proposed to explain the mechanisms responsible for refractory disease in these patients, including superantigen activation, biofilm formation, and eosinophil activation triggered by fungal elements. Although the precise underlying etiology of this clinical scenario remains unclear, the resultant pathophysiologic events share a final common pathway marked by inflammatory changes of the sinonasal mucosa. This article reviews the proposed hypotheses as to why some patients with chronic sinusitis fail conventional therapy and highlights treatment options useful in the palliative treatment of these patients.

Amoxicillin for postexposure inhalational anthrax in pediatrics: rationale for dosing recommendations

We reviewed information about the safety and plasma pharmacokinetic data for amoxicillin, specifically related to its potential use for postexposure inhalational anthrax. Amoxicillin (45 mg/kg/d) given orally in 3 divided doses to pediatric patients <40 kg should yield an adequate time above the MIC for susceptible Bacillus anthracis (< or =0.5 microg/mL) over most of the dosing interval (75-100%). Doses <45 mg/kg/d and dosing intervals longer than 8 hours should not be used for postexposure inhalational anthrax.

The use of macrolides in treatment of upper respiratory tract infections

Antimicrobial resistance is a growing problem among upper respiratory tract pathogens. Resistance to beta-lactam drugs among Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Streptococcus pyogenes is increasing. As safe and well-tolerated antibiotics, macrolides play a key role in the treatment of community-acquired upper respiratory tract infections (RTIs). Their broad spectrum of activity against gram-positive cocci, such as S. pneumoniae and S. pyogenes, atypical pathogens, H. influenzae (azithromycin and clarithromycin), and Moraxella catarrhalis, has led to the widespread use of macrolides for empiric treatment of upper RTIs and as alternatives for patients allergic to beta-lactams. Macrolide resistance is increasing among pneumococci and recently among S. pyogenes, and is associated with increasing use of the newer macrolides, such as azithromycin. Ribosomal target modification mediated by erm(A) and erm(B) genes and active efflux due to mef(A) and mef(E) are the principal mechanisms of resistance in both S. pneumoniae and S. pyogenes. Recently, ribosomal protein and RNA mutations have been found to be responsible for acquired resistance to macrolides in S. pneumoniae, S. pyogenes, and H. influenzae. Although macrolides are only weakly active against macrolide-resistant streptococci species, producing an efflux pump (mef), and are inactive against pathogens with ribosomal target modification (erm), treatment failures are uncommon. Therefore, macrolide therapy, for now, remains a good alternative for treatment of upper RTIs; however, continuous monitoring of the local resistance patterns is essential.

The use of macrolides in treatment of upper respiratory tract infections

Antimicrobial resistance is a growing problem among upper respiratory tract pathogens. Resistance to beta-lactam drugs among Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Streptococcus pyogenes is increasing. As safe and well-tolerated antibiotics, macrolides play a key role in the treatment of community-acquired upper respiratory tract infections (RTIs). Their broad spectrum of activity against gram-positive cocci, such as S. pneumoniae and S. pyogenes, atypical pathogens, H. influenzae (azithromycin and clarithromycin), and Moraxella catarrhalis, has led to the widespread use of macrolides for empiric treatment of upper RTIs and as alternatives for patients allergic to b-lactams. Macrolide resistance is increasing among pneumococci and recently among S. pyogenes, and is associated with increasing use of the newer macrolides, such as azithromycin. Ribosomal target modification mediated by erm(A) and erm(B) genes and active efflux due to mef(A) and mef(E) are the principal mechanisms of resistance in S. pneumoniae and S. pyogenes. Recently, ribosomal protein and RNA mutations have been found responsible for acquired resistance to macrolides in S. pneumoniae, S. pyogenes, and H. influenzae. Although macrolides are only weakly active against macrolide-resistant streptococci species producing an efflux pump (mef) and are inactive against pathogens with ribosomal target modification (erm), treatment failures are uncommon. Therefore, macrolide therapy, for now, remains a good alternative for treatment of upper RTIs; however, continuous monitoring of the local resistance patterns is essential.

Efficacy of intranasal virosomal influenza vaccine in the prevention of recurrent acute otitis media in children

To evaluate the efficacy of an intranasal, inactivated, virosomal subunit influenza vaccine for prevention of new episodes of acute otitis media (AOM) in children with recurrent AOM, 133 children aged 1-5 years were randomized to receive the vaccine (n=67) or no vaccination (n=66). During a 6-month period, 24 (35.8%) vaccine recipients had 32 episodes of AOM; 42 (63.6%) control subjects had 64 episodes. The overall efficacy of vaccination in preventing AOM was 43.7% (95% confidence interval, 18.6-61.1; P=.002). Children vaccinated before influenza season had a significantly better outcome than did those vaccinated after the onset of influenza season. The cumulative duration of middle ear effusion was significantly less in vaccinated children than in control subjects. Data suggest that the intranasal virosomal influenza vaccine might be considered among the options for the prevention of AOM in children <5 years old with recurrent AOM.

A prospective, randomized trial of pyrimethamine and azithromycin vs pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine for the treatment of ocular toxoplasmosis

OBJECTIVE

To compare the effects of two treatment regimens, one of which included azithromycin, for the treatment of sight-threatening (near optic disk or fovea) ocular toxoplasmosis.

DESIGN

Prospective, randomized open-labeled multicenter study, masked in part with regard to evaluation.

METHODS

PARTICIPANTS TOTAL ENROLLMENT: 46 patients with sight-threatening ocular toxoplasmosis; pyrimethamine and azithromycin group: 24 patients; pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine group: 22 patients.

INTERVENTION

Patients were randomized into two treatment regimens. Group 1 was treated with pyrimethamine and azithromycin complemented with folinic acid and the addition of prednisone from day 3. Group 2 was treated with pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine complemented with folinic acid and the addition of prednisone from day 3. Patients used study medications daily for 4 weeks. Ocular and laboratory examinations were performed at least weekly during the observation period. The study was masked in part with regard to evaluation.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

An assessment was made of the time to resolution of the intraocular inflammatory activity, the size of the retinochoroidal lesion, and visual acuity before and after the treatment as well as all adverse effects of treatments.

RESULTS

Adverse effects were more frequent in the pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine group (P <.04), and three patients in this group had to discontinue treatment. The time to resolution of inflammatory activity, decrease in size of retinochoroidal lesions, and optimal visual acuity did not differ between the two treatment groups. The number of patients who developed recurrences during the first year after treatment was similar for both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The efficacy of the multidrug regimen with pyrimethamine and azithromycin was similar to the standard treatment with pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine. However, the frequency and severity of adverse effects was significantly lower with a regimen containing pyrimethamine and azithromycin. Multidrug therapy with the combination of pyrimethamine and azithromycin appears to be an acceptable alternative for treatment of sight-threatening ocular toxoplasmosis.

Review of macrolides and ketolides: focus on respiratory tract infections

The first macrolide, erythromycin A, demonstrated broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity and was used primarily for respiratory and skin and soft tissue infections. Newer 14-, 15- and 16-membered ring macrolides such as clarithromycin and the azalide, azithromycin, have been developed to address the limitations of erythromycin. The main structural component of the macrolides is a large lactone ring that varies in size from 12 to 16 atoms. A new group of 14-membered macrolides known as the ketolides have recently been developed which have a 3-keto in place of the L-cladinose moiety. Macrolides reversibly bind to the 23S rRNA and thus, inhibit protein synthesis by blocking elongation. The ketolides have also been reported to bind to 23S rRNA and their mechanism of action is similar to that of macrolides. Macrolide resistance mechanisms include target site alteration, alteration in antibiotic transport and modification of the antibiotic. The macrolides and ketolides exhibit good activity against gram-positive aerobes and some gram-negative aerobes. Ketolides have excellent activity versus macrolide-resistant Streptococcus spp. Including mefA and ermB producing Streptococcus pneumoniae. The newer macrolides, such as azithromycin and clarithromycin, and the ketolides exhibit greater activity against Haemophilus influenzae than erythromycin. The bioavailability of macrolides ranges from 25 to 85%, with corresponding serum concentrations ranging from 0.4 to 12 mg/L and area under the concentration-time curves from 3 to 115 mg/L x h. Half-lives range from short for erythromycin to medium for clarithromycin, roxithromycin and ketolides, to very long for dirithromycin and azithromycin. All of these agents display large volumes of distribution with excellent uptake into respiratory tissues and fluids relative to serum. The majority of the agents are hepatically metabolised and excretion in the urine is limited, with the exception of clarithromycin. Clinical trials involving the macrolides are available for various respiratory infections. In general, macrolides are the preferred treatment for community-acquired pneumonia and alternative treatment for other respiratory infections. These agents are frequently used in patients with penicillin allergies. The macrolides are well-tolerated agents. Macrolides are divided into 3 groups for likely occurrence of drug-drug interactions: group 1 (e.g. erythromycin) are frequently involved, group 2 (e.g. clarithromycin, roxithromycin) are less commonly involved, whereas drug interactions have not been described for group 3 (e.g. azithromycin, dirithromycin). Few pharmacoeconomic studies involving macrolides are presently available. The ketolides are being developed in an attempt to address the increasingly prevalent problems of macrolide-resistant and multiresistant organisms.

Comparison of amoxicillin and azithromycin in the prevention of recurrent acute otitis media

OBJECTIVE

To compare the outcome of patients with recurrent acute otitis media (AOM) treated either with amoxicillin or with azithromycin.

METHODS

This prospective, controlled, and randomized study, compares the outcome of 71 patients with recurrent AOM treated with azithromycin (31 patients) or amoxicillin (40 patients) for the prevention of AOM. azithromycin was given at a dose of 10 mg/kg once a week, whereas amoxicillin was administered daily as a single intake of one third of the therapeutic dosage (20 mg/kg per day). All treatments were prescribed for 3 months. Both groups were homogeneous with regard to the currently accepted predisposing factors of recurrent AOM. Mean age of children was 35.3 months, and average follow-up was 11.5 months. The treatment was considered effective when the number of episodes of AOM dropped to less than 50% after the prophylaxis.

RESULTS

Patients in the azithromycin group had a clinical response to prophylaxis (80.6%) comparable to those treated with amoxicillin (89.5%) (P=0.300). The incidence of adverse effects was similar in both groups.

CONCLUSION

According to these results, a prophylaxis with azithromycin is as useful as amoxicillin to prevent recurrent AOM.

treatment and prevention of otitis media

OBJECTIVE

To review and summarize recent advances in the treatment and prevention of otitis media (OM).

DATA SOURCES

A MEDLINE search (1996-March 2000) was performed to identify relevant primary and review articles. References from these articles were also reviewed if deemed important.

STUDY SELECTION AND DATA EXTRACTION

English-language primary and review articles focusing on the treatment and prevention of acute otitis media (AOM) were included. Studies focusing exclusively on OM with effusion or serous OM and chronic suppurative OM were excluded. Information regarding prevention and drug therapy was reviewed, with an emphasis placed on advances made in the last two years.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Recently, an expert panel of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommended use of only three of 16 systemic antibiotics approved by the Food and Drug Administration for treatment of AOM: amoxicillin, cefuroxime axetil, and ceftriaxone. Controversy exists over the importance of key selection factors used by the expert panel in determining which antibiotics to recommend in a two-step treatment algorithm, that is, in vitro data, pharmacodynamic profiles, and necessity for coverage of drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae at all steps of empiric treatment. Additional antibiotic and patient selection factors useful for individualizing therapy include clinical efficacy, adverse effects, frequency and duration of administration, taste, cost, comorbid infections, and ramifications should bacterial resistance develop to the chosen antibiotic. Presumed or past patient/caregiver adherence (especially when antibiotic failure has occurred) is also paramount in selecting antibiotic therapy. A three-step treatment algorithm for refractory AOM that employs amoxicillin, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX), or high-dose amoxicillin/clavulanate (depending on the prior dose of and adherence to amoxicillin therapy), and ceftriaxone or tympanocentesis at steps 1, 2, and 3, respectively, appears rational and cost-effective. The recent upsurge in antimicrobial resistance is highlighted, and recommendations are presented for the treatment of AOM and prevention of recurrent otitis media (rAOM).

CONCLUSIONS

Amoxicillin remains the antibiotic of choice for initial empiric treatment of AOM, although the traditional dosage should be increased in patients at risk for drug-resistant S. pneumoniae. In cases refractory to high-dose amoxicillin, TMP/SMX should be prescribed if adherence to prior therapy seemed good or complete, or high-dose amoxicillin/clavulanate if adherence was incomplete or questionable. Ceftriaxone should be reserved as third-line treatment. The increasing prevalence of drug-resistant S. pneumoniae emphasizes the importance of alternative medical approaches for the prevention of OM, as well as judicious antibiotic use in established cases. Removal of modifiable risk factors should be first-line therapy for prevention of rAOM. We support the use of conjugate pneumococcal vaccine per guidelines for prevention of rAOM from the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practice of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, with consideration given to influenza vaccine for cases of rAOM that historically worsen during the flu season. Sulfisoxazole prophylaxis should be reserved for children who are immunocompromised, have concurrent disease states exacerbated by AOM, or meet the criteria of rAOM despite conjugate pneumococcal and influenza vaccination. Therapy should be intermittent, beginning at the first sign of an upper respiratory infection, and should continue for 10 days. The invasive nature and risks of anesthesia relegate myringotomy, tympanostomy tubes, and adenoidectomy to last-line therapies for rAOM.

Comparative tolerability of erythromycin and newer macrolide antibacterials in paediatric patients

The macrolides are a well established group of antibacterials frequently used in general practice. The most frequently used macrolides in paediatric patients are erythromycin, a naturally occurring compound, and clarithromycin and azithromycin, recently developed macrolides. Overall adverse effect rates of 7 to 26% for erythromycin, 14 to 26% for clarithromycin, and 6 to 27% for azithromycin have been described in children. Adverse gastrointestinal effects, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and abdominal cramps, are the most common problems in children. Allergic reactions, hepatotoxicity, ototoxicity and adverse effects involving the central and peripheral nervous systems have also been observed in children. Stevens-Johnson, Schonlein-Henoch and Churg-Strauss syndromes have been rarely described in children. Treatment-related laboratory abnormalities have been recorded in 2 to 4% of erythromycin- and in 0 to 1% of both clarithromycin- and azithromycin-treated children. Elevation in liver function tests was the most common abnormality cited. Increased macrolide use in children in recent years has resulted in a growing potential for drug interactions between them and other pharmacologically active agents via the inhibition of cytochrome P450 (CYP) microsomal enzymes. Drug interactions with theophylline, cyclosporin, carbamazepine, terfenadine and warfarin limit erythromycin use. Clarithromycin is a weak inducer of CYP and exhibits fewer drug-drug interactions than erythromycin. However, its use with theophylline, carbamazepine and terfenadine is contraindicated. In contrast, no significant interactions have been reported with azithromycin to date. Macrolides have been proven to be well tolerated in the treatment of upper and lower respiratory tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, and also in less frequent infections occurring in paediatric patients. In addition, clarithromycin and azithromycin have shown good tolerability profiles in immunocompromised paediatric patients. In conclusion, macrolides antibacterials have proven to be well tolerated in paediatric patients. Although the incidence of adverse effects is similar with the use of erythromycin and the newer macrolides, drug interactions occur significantly less when clarithromycin or azithromycin are administered.