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Wu D, Jin L, Huang X, Deng H, Shen QK, Quan ZS, Zhang C, Guo HY. Arctigenin: pharmacology, total synthesis, and progress in structure modification. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2022; 37:2452-2477. [PMID: 36093586 PMCID: PMC9481144 DOI: 10.1080/14756366.2022.2115035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Arctium lappa L. is a prevalent medicinal herb and a health supplement that is commonly used in Asia. Over the last few decades, the bioactive component arctigenin has attracted the attention of researchers because of its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, multiple sclerosis fighting, antitumor, and anti-leukemia properties. After summarising the research and literature on arctigenin, this study outlines the current status of research on pharmacological activity, total synthesis, and structural modification of arctigenin. The purpose of this study is to assist academics in obtaining a more comprehensive understanding of the research progress on arctigenin and to provide constructive suggestions for further investigation of this useful molecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Wu
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Affifiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Jilin, China
| | - Lili Jin
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Affifiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Jilin, China
| | - Xing Huang
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Affifiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Jilin, China
| | - Hao Deng
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Affifiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Jilin, China
| | - Qing-kun Shen
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Affifiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Jilin, China
| | - Zhe-shan Quan
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Affifiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Jilin, China
| | - Changhao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Affifiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Jilin, China
| | - Hong-Yan Guo
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Affifiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Jilin, China
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Alomar ML, Yañuk JG, Angel SO, Gonzalez MM, Cabrerizo FM. In vitro Effect of Harmine Alkaloid and Its N-Methyl Derivatives Against Toxoplasma gondii. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:716534. [PMID: 34421876 PMCID: PMC8375385 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.716534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis is one of the most prevalent and neglected zoonotic global diseases caused by Toxoplasma gondii. The current pharmacological treatments show clinical limitations, and therefore, the search for new drugs is an urgent need in order to eradicate this infection. Due to their intrinsic biological activities, β-carboline (βC) alkaloids might represent a good alternative that deserves further investigations. In this context, the in vitro anti-T. gondii activity of three βCs, harmine (1), 2-methyl-harminium (2), and 9-methyl-harmine (3), was evaluated herein. Briefly, the three alkaloids exerted direct effects on the parasite invasion and/or replication capability. Replication rates of intracellular treated tachyzoites were also affected in a dose-dependent manner, at noncytotoxic concentrations for host cells. Additionally, cell cycle analysis revealed that both methyl-derivatives 2 and 3 induce parasite arrest in S/M phases. Compound 3 showed the highest irreversible parasite growth inhibition, with a half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) value of 1.8 ± 0.2 μM and a selectivity index (SI) of 17.2 at 4 days post infection. Due to high replication rates, tachyzoites are frequently subjected to DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). This highly toxic lesion triggers a series of DNA damage response reactions, starting with a kinase cascade that phosphorylates a large number of substrates, including the histone H2A.X to lead the early DSB marker γH2A.X. Western blot studies showed that basal expression of γH2A.X was reduced in the presence of 3. Interestingly, the typical increase in γH2A.X levels produced by camptothecin (CPT), a drug that generates DSB, was not observed when CPT was co-administered with 3. These findings suggest that 3 might disrupt Toxoplasma DNA damage response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria L Alomar
- Laboratorio de Fotoquímica y Fotobiología Molecular, Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (INTECH), Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Chascomús, Argentina
| | - Juan G Yañuk
- Laboratorio de Fotoquímica y Fotobiología Molecular, Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (INTECH), Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Chascomús, Argentina
| | - Sergio O Angel
- Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, INTECH, UNSAM - CONICET, Chascomús, Argentina
| | - M Micaela Gonzalez
- Laboratorio de Fotoquímica y Fotobiología Molecular, Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (INTECH), Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Chascomús, Argentina
| | - Franco M Cabrerizo
- Laboratorio de Fotoquímica y Fotobiología Molecular, Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (INTECH), Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Chascomús, Argentina
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Biguanides drugs: Past success stories and promising future for drug discovery. Eur J Med Chem 2021; 224:113726. [PMID: 34364161 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.113726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Biguanides have attracted much attention a century ago and showed resurgent interest in recent years after a long period of dormancy. They constitute an important class of therapeutic agents suitable for the treatment of a wide spectrum of diseases. Therapeutic indications of biguanides include antidiabetic, antimalarial, antiviral, antiplaque, and bactericidal applications. This review presents an extensive overview of the biological activity of biguanides and different mechanisms of action of currently marketed biguanide-containing drugs, as well as their pharmacological properties when applicable. We highlight the recent developments in research on biguanide compounds, with a primary focus on studies on metformin in the field of oncology. We aim to provide a critical overview of all main bioactive biguanide compounds and discuss future perspectives for the design of new drugs based on the biguanide fragment.
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Zhang RH, Jin R, Deng H, Shen QK, Quan ZS, Jin CM. Evaluation of the anti-Toxoplasma gondii Activity of Hederagenin in vitro and in vivo. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2021; 59:297-301. [PMID: 34218602 PMCID: PMC8255499 DOI: 10.3347/kjp.2021.59.3.297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii infection is widespread worldwide, not only posing a serious threat to human food safety and animal husbandry, but also endangering human health. The selectivity index was employed to measure anti-T. gondii activity. Hederagenin (HE) exhibited potent anti-T. gondii activity and low cytotoxicity. For this reason, HE was selected for in vivo experiments. HE showed 64.8%±13.1% inhibition for peritoneal tachyzoites in mice, higher than spiramycin 56.8%±6.0%. Biochemical parameters such as alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, glutathione, and malondialdehyde, illustrated that HE was a good inhibitor of T. gondii in vivo. This compound was also effective in relieving T. gondii-induced liver damage. Collectively, it was demonstrated that HE had potential as an anti-T. gondii agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Run-Hui Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China
| | - Runhao Jin
- School of nursing Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China
| | - Hao Deng
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China
| | - Qing-Kun Shen
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China
| | - Zhe-Shan Quan
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China
| | - Chun-Mei Jin
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines of the Changbai Mountain, Ministry of Education, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China
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Smith NC, Goulart C, Hayward JA, Kupz A, Miller CM, van Dooren GG. Control of human toxoplasmosis. Int J Parasitol 2020; 51:95-121. [PMID: 33347832 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2020.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis is caused by Toxoplasma gondii, an apicomplexan parasite that is able to infect any nucleated cell in any warm-blooded animal. Toxoplasma gondii infects around 2 billion people and, whilst only a small percentage of infected people will suffer serious disease, the prevalence of the parasite makes it one of the most damaging zoonotic diseases in the world. Toxoplasmosis is a disease with multiple manifestations: it can cause a fatal encephalitis in immunosuppressed people; if first contracted during pregnancy, it can cause miscarriage or congenital defects in the neonate; and it can cause serious ocular disease, even in immunocompetent people. The disease has a complex epidemiology, being transmitted by ingestion of oocysts that are shed in the faeces of definitive feline hosts and contaminate water, soil and crops, or by consumption of intracellular cysts in undercooked meat from intermediate hosts. In this review we examine current and future approaches to control toxoplasmosis, which encompass a variety of measures that target different components of the life cycle of T. gondii. These include: education programs about the parasite and avoidance of contact with infectious stages; biosecurity and sanitation to ensure food and water safety; chemo- and immunotherapeutics to control active infections and disease; prophylactic options to prevent acquisition of infection by livestock and cyst formation in meat; and vaccines to prevent shedding of oocysts by definitive feline hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas C Smith
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia; Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia.
| | - Cibelly Goulart
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia; Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
| | - Jenni A Hayward
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
| | - Andreas Kupz
- Centre for Molecular Therapeutics, Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Cairns, QLD 4878, Australia
| | - Catherine M Miller
- College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Science, James Cook University, Cairns, QLD 4878, Australia
| | - Giel G van Dooren
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
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Copaifera spp. oleoresins impair Toxoplasma gondii infection in both human trophoblastic cells and human placental explants. Sci Rep 2020; 10:15158. [PMID: 32938966 PMCID: PMC7495442 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-72230-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The combination of pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine is the standard care in cases of congenital toxoplasmosis. However, therapy with these drugs is associated with severe and sometimes life-threatening side effects. The investigation of phytotherapeutic alternatives to treat parasitic diseases without acute toxicity is essential for the advancement of current therapeutic practices. The present study investigates the antiparasitic effects of oleoresins from different species of Copaifera genus against T. gondii. Oleoresins from C. reticulata, C. duckei, C. paupera, and C. pubiflora were used to treat human trophoblastic cells (BeWo cells) and human villous explants infected with T. gondii. Our results demonstrated that oleoresins were able to reduce T. gondii intracellular proliferation, adhesion, and invasion. We observed an irreversible concentration-dependent antiparasitic action in infected BeWo cells, as well as parasite cell cycle arrest in the S/M phase. The oleoresins altered the host cell environment by modulation of ROS, IL-6, and MIF production in BeWo cells. Also, Copaifera oleoresins reduced parasite replication and TNF-α release in villous explants. Anti-T. gondii effects triggered by the oleoresins are associated with immunomodulation of the host cells, as well as, direct action on parasites.
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Luan T, Jin C, Jin CM, Gong GH, Quan ZS. Synthesis and biological evaluation of ursolic acid derivatives bearing triazole moieties as potential anti-Toxoplasma gondii agents. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2019; 34:761-772. [PMID: 30836795 PMCID: PMC6407578 DOI: 10.1080/14756366.2019.1584622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Revised: 02/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Ursolic acid (UA), a plant-derived compound, has many properties beneficial to health. In the present study, we synthesised three series of novel UA derivatives and evaluated their anti-Toxoplasma gondii activity both in vitro and in vivo. Most derivatives exhibited an improved anti-T. gondii activity in vitro when compared with UA (parent compound), whereas compound 3d exhibited the most potent anti-T. gondii activity in vivo. Spiramycin served as the positive control. Additionally, determination of biochemical parameters, including the liver and spleen indexes, indicated compound 3d to effectively reduce hepatotoxicity and significantly enhance anti-oxidative effects, as compared with UA. Furthermore, our molecular docking study indicated compound 3d to possess a strong binding affinity for T. gondii calcium-dependent protein kinase 1 (TgCDPK1). Based on these findings, we conclude that compound 3d, a derivative of UA, could act as a potential inhibitor of TgCDPK1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian Luan
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Chunmei Jin
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Chun-Mei Jin
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Guo-Hua Gong
- First Clinical Medical College of Inner Mongolia University for Nationalities, Tongliao, China
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Mongolian Medicine Pharmacology for Cardio-Cerebral Vascular System, Inner Mongolia University for Nationalities, Tongliao, China
| | - Zhe-Shan Quan
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
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Guo HY, Jin C, Zhang HM, Jin CM, Shen QK, Quan ZS. Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of (+)-Usnic Acid Derivatives as Potential Anti- Toxoplasma gondii Agents. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2019; 67:9630-9642. [PMID: 31365255 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b02173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Six series of (+)-usnic acid derivatives were synthesized. The IC50 values of these compounds were determined in T. gondii infected HeLa cells (μM) and in HeLa cells (μM), and their selectivity indexes (SI) were calculated. In vitro, most of the derivatives tested in this study exhibited more anti activity than that of the parent compound (+)-usnic acid and the positive control drugs. Among these derivatives, methyl (E)-(1-(6-acetyl-7,9-dihydroxy-8,9b-dimethyl-1,3-dioxo-3,9b-dihydrodibenzo[b,d]furan-2(1H)-ylidene)ethyl)phenylalaninate (D3) showed the most effective anti-T. gondii activity (selectivity >2.77). In comparison with the clinically used positive control drugs sulfadiazine (selectivity 1.15), pyrimethamine (selectivity 0.89), spiramycin (selectivity 0.72), and the lead compound (+)-usnic acid (selectivity 0.96), D3 showed better results in vitro. Furthermore, D3 and (E)-6-acetyl-7,9-dihydroxy-8,9b-dimethyl-2-(1-(quinolin-6-ylamino)ethylidene)dibenzo[b,d]furan-1,3(2H,9bH)-dione (F3) had greater inhibitory effects on T. gondii (inhibition rates 76.0% and 64.6%) in vivo in comparison to spiramycin (inhibition rate 55.2%); in the peritoneal cavity of mice, the number of tachyzoites was significantly reduced (p < 0.001) in vivo. Additionally, some biochemical parameters were measured and spleen indexes were comprehensively evaluated, and the results indicated that mice treated with both compound D3 and compound F3 showed reduced hepatotoxicity and significantly enhanced antioxidative effects in comparison to the normal group. Granuloma and cyst formation were effected by the inhibition of compound D3 and compound F3 in liver sections. Overall, these results indicated that D3 and F3 for use as anti-T. gondii agents are promising lead compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Yan Guo
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy , Yanbian University , Yanji , Jilin 133002 , People's Republic of China
| | - ChunMei Jin
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy , Yanbian University , Yanji , Jilin 133002 , People's Republic of China
| | - Hai-Ming Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy , Yanbian University , Yanji , Jilin 133002 , People's Republic of China
| | - Chun-Mei Jin
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy , Yanbian University , Yanji , Jilin 133002 , People's Republic of China
| | - Qing-Kun Shen
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy , Yanbian University , Yanji , Jilin 133002 , People's Republic of China
| | - Zhe-Shan Quan
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy , Yanbian University , Yanji , Jilin 133002 , People's Republic of China
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SHOJAEE S, FIROUZEH N, KESHAVARZ H, JAFAR-POUR AZAMI S, SALIMI M, MOHEBALI M. Nanosilver Colloid Inhibits Toxoplasma gondii Tachyzoites and Bradyzoites in Vitro. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2019; 14:362-367. [PMID: 31673253 PMCID: PMC6815863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Toxoplasma gondii, the coccidian protozoan parasite with worldwide distribution, is the agent of toxoplasmosis. The disease is life threatening in congenital form and in immunocompromised patients. The present study was carried out in 2016 to evaluate the in vitro effects of nanosilver colloid on tachyzoites and bradyzoites of T. gondii, RH and Tehran strains. METHODS Different concentrations (5, 10, 20 ppm) of nanosilver colloid were added to tachyzoites of T. gondii, RH strain (type I) and bradyzoites and tissue cysts of T. gondii, Tehran strain (type II) and incubated for 30, 60, 90 and 120 minutes. The mortality rates of tachyzoites and bradyzoites were evaluated by trypan blue dye and MTT assay. Then SEM carried out to show the changes between control and exposed parasites. RESULTS The greatest mortality rate was seen in 20 ppm concentration and after 120 minutes of exposure. By electron microscopy, the structural changes were seen in tachyzoites of RH and tissue cyst of Tehran strain in comparison with control groups. CONCLUSION Nanosilver colloid was effective on both tachyzoites and bradyzoites of T. gondii, RH and Tehran strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saeedeh SHOJAEE
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran,Correspondence
| | - Nima FIROUZEH
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hussein KESHAVARZ
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran, Center for Research of Endemic Parasites of Iran (CREPI), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sanaz JAFAR-POUR AZAMI
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahboobeh SALIMI
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehdi MOHEBALI
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran, Center for Research of Endemic Parasites of Iran (CREPI), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Zhang HB, Shen QK, Wang H, Jin C, Jin CM, Quan ZS. Synthesis and evaluation of novel arctigenin derivatives as potential anti-Toxoplasma gondii agents. Eur J Med Chem 2018; 158:414-427. [PMID: 30237124 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.08.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2018] [Revised: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Four new series of arctigenin derivatives were designed, synthesised, and evaluated for their anti-Toxoplasma gondii activity in vitro and in vivo. Among the synthesised compounds, 4-(3,4-dimethoxybenzyl)-3-(4-((1-(2-fluorobenzyl)-1H- 1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)methoxy)-3-methoxybenzyl)dihydrofuran-2(3H)-one (D4) exhibited the most potent anti-T. gondii activity and low cytotoxicity (IC50 in T. gondii: 17.1 μM; IC50 in HeLa cells: ≥ 600.0 μM; Selectivity: 35.09), demonstrating better results than the lead compound arctigenin (IC50 in T. gondii: 586.4 μM; IC50 in HeLa cells: 572.7 μM; Selectivity: 0.98) and the clinically applied positive-control drug spiramycin (IC50 in T. gondi: 262.2 μM; IC50 in HeLa cells: 189.0 μM; Selectivity: 0.72) in vitro. Furthermore, 2-(4-((4-(3,4-dimethoxybenzyl)-2-oxotetrahydrofuran-3-yl)methyl)-2- methoxyphenoxy)N-phenylacetamide (E5) had better inhibitory effects on T. gondii in vivo than spiramycin did. Compound D4 and E5 not only significantly reduced the number of tachyzoites in the peritoneal cavity of mice, but also resulted in their partial malformation (P < 0.05) in vivo. The determination of liver and spleen index and biochemical parameters, such as alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA), were comprehensively evaluated for compound D4 and E5's anti-T. gondii activity and some damage to the liver. In addition, the results of a docking study of D4 into the T. gondii calcium-dependent protein kinase 1 (TgCDPK1) receptor protein-binding site revealed that its mode of action was possibly as a TgCDPK1 inhibitor. Overall, the results revealed that D4 and E5 are promising lead compounds for the further development and identification of arctigenin derivatives as anti-T. gondii agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Bin Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, 133002, China
| | - Qing-Kun Shen
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, 133002, China
| | - Hui Wang
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, 133002, China
| | - Chunmei Jin
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, 133002, China
| | - Chun-Mei Jin
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, 133002, China.
| | - Zhe-Shan Quan
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources and Functional Molecules of the Changbai Mountain, Affiliated Ministry of Education, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, 133002, China.
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11
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Chellan P, Sadler PJ, Land KM. Recent developments in drug discovery against the protozoal parasites Cryptosporidium and Toxoplasma. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2017; 27:1491-1501. [PMID: 28242275 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2017.01.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2016] [Revised: 01/12/2017] [Accepted: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites cause some of the most devastating human diseases, including malaria, toxoplasmosis, and cryptosporidiosis. New drug discovery is imperative in light of increased resistance. In this digest article, we briefly explore some of the recent and promising developments in new drug discovery against two apicomplexan parasites, Cryptosporidium and Toxoplasma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prinessa Chellan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, Warwickshire CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Peter J Sadler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, Warwickshire CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Kirkwood M Land
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, United States.
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Review of Experimental Compounds Demonstrating Anti-Toxoplasma Activity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2016; 60:7017-7034. [PMID: 27600037 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01176-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a ubiquitous apicomplexan parasite capable of infecting humans and other animals. Current treatment options for T. gondii infection are limited and most have drawbacks, including high toxicity and low tolerability. Additionally, no FDA-approved treatments are available for pregnant women, a high-risk population due to transplacental infection. Therefore, the development of novel treatment options is needed. To aid this effort, this review highlights experimental compounds that, at a minimum, demonstrate inhibition of in vitro growth of T. gondii When available, host cell toxicity and in vivo data are also discussed. The purpose of this review is to facilitate additional development of anti-Toxoplasma compounds and potentially to extend our knowledge of the parasite.
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Toxoplasmosis and anti-Toxoplasma effects of medicinal plant extracts-A mini-review. ASIAN PAC J TROP MED 2016; 9:730-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apjtm.2016.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2016] [Revised: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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14
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Eraky MA, El-Fakahany AF, El-Sayed NM, Abou-Ouf EAR, Yaseen DI. Effects of Thymus vulgaris ethanolic extract on chronic toxoplasmosis in a mouse model. Parasitol Res 2016; 115:2863-71. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-016-5041-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2016] [Accepted: 04/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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15
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Gaafar MR, Mady RF, Diab RG, Shalaby TI. Chitosan and silver nanoparticles: promising anti-toxoplasma agents. Exp Parasitol 2014; 143:30-8. [PMID: 24852215 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2014.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2013] [Revised: 04/13/2014] [Accepted: 05/12/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis is a worldwide infection caused by obligate intracellular protozoan parasite which is Toxoplasma gondii. Chitosan and silver nanoparticles were synthesized to be evaluated singly or combined for their anti-toxoplasma effects as prophylaxis and as treatment in the experimental animals. Results were assessed through studying the parasite density and the ultrastructural parasite changes, and estimation of serum gamma interferon. Weight of tissue silver was assessed in different organs. Results showed that silver nanoparticles used singly or combined with chitosan have promising anti-toxoplasma potentials. The animals that received these compounds showed statistically significant decrease in the mean number of the parasite count in the liver and the spleen, when compared to the corresponding control group. Light microscopic examination of the peritoneal exudates of animals receiving these compounds showed stoppage of movement and deformity in shape of the tachyzoites, whereas, by scanning electron microscope, the organisms were mutilated. Moreover, gamma interferon was increased in the serum of animals receiving these compounds. All values of silver detected in different tissues were within the safe range. Thus, these nanoparticles proved their effectiveness against the experimental Toxoplasma infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Gaafar
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt.
| | - R F Mady
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt
| | - R G Diab
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt
| | - Th I Shalaby
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Medical Research Institute, Alexandria University, Egypt
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16
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Stec J, Fomovska A, Afanador GA, Muench SP, Zhou Y, Lai BS, El Bissati K, Hickman MR, Lee PJ, Leed SE, Auschwitz JM, Sommervile C, Woods S, Roberts CW, Rice D, Prigge ST, McLeod R, Kozikowski AP. Modification of triclosan scaffold in search of improved inhibitors for enoyl-acyl carrier protein (ACP) reductase in Toxoplasma gondii. ChemMedChem 2013; 8:1138-60. [PMID: 23776166 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201300050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2013] [Revised: 04/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Through our focused effort to discover new and effective agents against toxoplasmosis, a structure-based drug design approach was used to develop a series of potent inhibitors of the enoyl-acyl carrier protein (ACP) reductase (ENR) enzyme in Toxoplasma gondii (TgENR). Modifications to positions 5 and 4' of the well-known ENR inhibitor triclosan afforded a series of 29 new analogues. Among the resulting compounds, many showed high potency and improved physicochemical properties in comparison with the lead. The most potent compounds 16 a and 16 c have IC50 values of 250 nM against Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites without apparent toxicity to the host cells. Their IC50 values against recombinant TgENR were found to be 43 and 26 nM, respectively. Additionally, 11 other analogues in this series had IC50 values ranging from 17 to 130 nM in the enzyme-based assay. With respect to their excellent in vitro activity as well as improved drug-like properties, the lead compounds 16 a and 16 c are deemed to be excellent starting points for the development of new medicines to effectively treat Toxoplasma gondii infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jozef Stec
- Drug Discovery Program, Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago, 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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17
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Fomovska A, Wood RD, Mui E, Dubey JP, Ferreira LR, Hickman MR, Lee PJ, Leed SE, Auschwitz JM, Welsh WJ, Sommerville C, Woods S, Roberts C, McLeod R. Salicylanilide inhibitors of Toxoplasma gondii. J Med Chem 2012; 55:8375-91. [PMID: 22970937 DOI: 10.1021/jm3007596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is an apicomplexan parasite that can cause eye disease, brain disease, and death, especially in congenitally infected and immune-compromised people. Novel medicines effective against both active and latent forms of the parasite are greatly needed. The current study focused on the discovery of such medicines by exploring a family of potential inhibitors whose antiapicomplexan activity has not been previously reported. Initial screening efforts revealed that niclosamide, a drug approved for anthelmintic use, possessed promising activity in vitro against T. gondii. This observation inspired the evaluation of the activity of a series of salicylanilides and derivatives. Several inhibitors with activities in the nanomolar range with no appreciable in vitro toxicity to human cells were identified. An initial structure-activity relationship was explored. Four compounds were selected for evaluation in an in vivo model of infection, and two derivatives with potentially enhanced pharmacological parameters demonstrated the best activity profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alina Fomovska
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Pediatrics (Infectious Diseases), Committees on Genetics, Immunology, and Molecular Medicine, Institute of Genomics and Systems Biology, and The College, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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18
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Rapid discovery of inhibitors of Toxoplasma gondii using hybrid structure-based computational approach. J Comput Aided Mol Des 2011; 25:403-11. [DOI: 10.1007/s10822-011-9420-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2010] [Accepted: 02/16/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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19
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Tipparaju SK, Muench SP, Mui EJ, Ruzheinikov SN, Lu JZ, Hutson SL, Kirisits MJ, Prigge ST, Roberts CW, Henriquez FL, Kozikowski AP, Rice DW, McLeod RL. Identification and development of novel inhibitors of Toxoplasma gondii enoyl reductase. J Med Chem 2010; 53:6287-300. [PMID: 20698542 DOI: 10.1021/jm9017724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis causes significant morbidity and mortality, and yet available medicines are limited by toxicities and hypersensitivity. Because improved medicines are needed urgently, rational approaches were used to identify novel lead compounds effective against Toxoplasma gondii enoyl reductase (TgENR), a type II fatty acid synthase enzyme essential in parasites but not present in animals. Fifty-three compounds, including three classes that inhibit ENRs, were tested. Six compounds have antiparasite MIC(90)s < or = 6 microM without toxicity to host cells, three compounds have IC(90)s < 45 nM against recombinant TgENR, and two protect mice. To further understand the mode of inhibition, the cocrystal structure of one of the most promising candidate compounds in complex with TgENR has been determined to 2.7 A. The crystal structure reveals that the aliphatic side chain of compound 19 occupies, as predicted, space made available by replacement of a bulky hydrophobic residue in homologous bacterial ENRs by Ala in TgENR. This provides a paradigm, conceptual foundation, reagents, and lead compounds for future rational development and discovery of improved inhibitors of T. gondii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suresh K Tipparaju
- Drug Discovery Program, Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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20
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Phenotypic and gene expression changes among clonal type I strains of Toxoplasma gondii. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2009; 8:1828-36. [PMID: 19801420 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00150-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii has an unusual population structure consisting of three clonal lineages that predominate in North America and Europe. This simple pattern has encouraged the use of only a few laboratory isolates that are representative of each lineage. Principle among these is the type I RH strain, originally isolated from a child with encephalitis some 70 years ago. Comparison of different passages of the RH strain that have been propagated differently over the intervening time period revealed that the commonly used clonal line called RH-ERP was not representative of natural isolates of the type I lineage. Notably, RH-ERP formed much larger plaques than other type 1 strains, including a separate, earlier derived isolate of the RH strain. The RH-ERP variant also showed enhanced extracellular survival, faster growth, and decreased differentiation compared to the prototype type I strain GT1. Comparison of gene expression differences in the RH-ERP line revealed that several ABC transporters were upregulated, which may provide a growth advantage in vitro. These findings illustrate that dramatic phenotypic changes can arise in laboratory strains, emphasizing the need for comparison with recent clinical isolates.
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21
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Thiolactomycin analogues as potential anti-Toxoplasma gondii agents. Parasitol Int 2009; 58:411-5. [PMID: 19698800 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2009.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2009] [Revised: 08/05/2009] [Accepted: 08/10/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of new compounds active against Toxoplasma gondii is extremely important due to the severe disease caused by this pathogen in immunocompromised hosts and to congenital infection. Type II fatty acid biosynthesis has shown to be a promising target for drug intervention in toxoplasmosis. Here we describe the inhibitory effect of 8 thiolactomycin (TLM) analogues against tachyzoite-infected LLC-MK(2) cells. The TLM analogues demonstrated anti-T. gondii activity, arresting tachyzoite proliferation with IC(50) values in the micromolar level after 24 h and 48 h of treatment. Metabolic labelling of extracellular parasites treated with TLM analogues using [(3)H]acetate demonstrated that these drugs affected acylglycerol synthesis. The rapid reduction of parasite load suggests that these compounds have selective cytotoxic effects against T. gondii. Transmission electron microscopy demonstrated that TLM analogues interfered with membrane-bounded organelles and parasite division and this in turn affected parasite development and survival.
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22
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Mui EJ, Schiehser GA, Milhous WK, Hsu H, Roberts CW, Kirisits M, Muench S, Rice D, Dubey JP, Fowble JW, Rathod PK, Queener SF, Liu SR, Jacobus DP, McLeod R. Novel triazine JPC-2067-B inhibits Toxoplasma gondii in vitro and in vivo. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2008; 2:e190. [PMID: 18320016 PMCID: PMC2254147 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2007] [Accepted: 01/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND METHODOLOGY Toxoplasma gondii causes substantial morbidity, mortality, and costs for healthcare in the developed and developing world. Current medicines are not well tolerated and cause hypersensitivity reactions. The dihydrotriazine JPC-2067-B (4, 6-diamino-1, 2-dihydro-2, 2-dimethyl-1-(3'(2-chloro-, 4-trifluoromethoxyphenoxy)propyloxy)-1, 3, 5-triazine), which inhibits dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), is highly effective against Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, and apicomplexans related to T. gondii. JPC-2067-B is the primary metabolite of the orally active biguanide JPC-2056 1-(3'-(2-chloro-4-trifluoromethoxyphenyloxy)propyl oxy)- 5-isopropylbiguanide, which is being advanced to clinical trials for malaria. Efficacy of the prodrug JPC-2056 and the active metabolite JPC-2067-B against T. gondii and T. gondii DHFR as well as toxicity toward mammalian cells were tested. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS Herein, we found that JPC-2067-B is highly effective against T. gondii. We demonstrate that JPC-2067-B inhibits T. gondii growth in culture (IC50 20 nM), inhibits the purified enzyme (IC50 6.5 nM), is more efficacious than pyrimethamine, and is cidal in vitro. JPC-2067-B administered parenterally and the orally administered pro-drug (JPC-2056) are also effective against T. gondii tachyzoites in vivo. A molecular model of T. gondii DHFR-TS complexed with JPC-2067-B was developed. We found that the three main parasite clonal types and isolates from South and Central America, the United States, Canada, China, and Sri Lanka have the same amino acid sequences preserving key binding sites for the triazine. SIGNIFICANCE JPC-2056/JPC-2067-B have potential to be more effective and possibly less toxic treatments for toxoplasmosis than currently available medicines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernest J. Mui
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Guy A. Schiehser
- Jacobus Pharmaceutical Company, Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Wilbur K. Milhous
- Walter Reed Army Institute for Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Honghue Hsu
- Jacobus Pharmaceutical Company, Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Craig W. Roberts
- Department of Immunology, Strathclyde Institute for Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Kirisits
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Stephen Muench
- Krebs Institute for Biomolecular Research, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, England, United Kingdom
| | - David Rice
- Krebs Institute for Biomolecular Research, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, England, United Kingdom
| | - J. P. Dubey
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Services, Animal and Natural Resources Institute, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Joseph W. Fowble
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Pradipsinh K. Rathod
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Sherry F. Queener
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Susan R. Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - David P. Jacobus
- Jacobus Pharmaceutical Company, Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Rima McLeod
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Pediatrics, Committee on Molecular Medicines, Genetics, and Immunology and The College, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
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23
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Welti R, Mui E, Sparks A, Wernimont S, Isaac G, Kirisits M, Roth M, Roberts CW, Botté C, Maréchal E, McLeod R. Lipidomic analysis of Toxoplasma gondii reveals unusual polar lipids. Biochemistry 2007; 46:13882-90. [PMID: 17988103 PMCID: PMC2576749 DOI: 10.1021/bi7011993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Analysis of the polar lipids of Toxoplasma gondii by electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry provides a detailed picture of the lipid molecular species of this parasitic protozoan. Most notably, T. gondii contains a relatively high level, estimated to about 2% of the total polar lipid, of ceramide phosphoethanolamine. The ceramide phosphoethanolamine has a fatty amide profile with only 16- and 18-carbon species. Compared with the host fibroblasts in which it was grown, T. gondii also has higher levels of phosphatidylcholine but lower levels of sphingomyelin and phosphatidylserine. Analysis at the molecular species level indicated that T. gondii has greater amounts of shorter-chain fatty acid in its polar lipid molecular species than the host fibroblasts. Shorter-chain fatty acids with a combined total of 30 or fewer acyl carbons make up 21% of Toxoplasma's, but only 3% of the host's, diacyl phosphatidylcholine. Furthermore, diacyl phosphatidylcholine with two saturated acyl chains with 12, 14, or 16 carbons make up over 11% of parasite phosphatidylcholine but less than 3% of the host phosphatidylcholine molecular species. The distinctive T. gondii tachyzoite lipid profile may be particularly suited to the function of parasitic membranes and the interaction of the parasite with the host cell and the host's immune system. Combined with T. gondii genomic data, these lipidomic data will assist in elucidation of metabolic pathways for lipid biosynthesis in this important human pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Welti
- Kansas Lipidomics Research Center, Division of Biology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA
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