1
|
Chaqroun A, Bertrand I, Wurtzer S, Moulin L, Boni M, Soubies S, Boudaud N, Gantzer C. Assessing infectivity of emerging enveloped viruses in wastewater and sewage sludge: Relevance and procedures. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 943:173648. [PMID: 38825204 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 has heightened the need to evaluate the detection of enveloped viruses in the environment, particularly in wastewater, within the context of wastewater-based epidemiology. The studies published over the past 80 years focused primarily on non-enveloped viruses due to their ability to survive longer in environmental matrices such as wastewater or sludge compared to enveloped viruses. However, different enveloped viruses survive in the environment for different lengths of time. Therefore, it is crucial to be prepared to assess the potential infectious risk that may arise from future emerging enveloped viruses. This will require appropriate tools, notably suitable viral concentration methods that do not compromise virus infectivity. This review has a dual purpose: first, to gather all the available literature on the survival of infectious enveloped viruses, specifically at different pH and temperature conditions, and in contact with detergents; second, to select suitable concentration methods for evaluating the infectivity of these viruses in wastewater and sludge. The methodology used in this data collection review followed the systematic approach outlined in the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis) guidelines. Concentration methods cited in the data gathered are more tailored towards detecting the enveloped viruses' genome. There is a lack of suitable methods for detecting infectious enveloped viruses in wastewater and sludge. Ultrafiltration, ultracentrifugation, and polyethylene glycol precipitation methods, under specific/defined conditions, appear to be relevant approaches. Further studies are necessary to validate reliable concentration methods for detecting infectious enveloped viruses. The choice of culture system is also crucial for detection sensitivity. The data also show that the survival of infectious enveloped viruses, though lower than that of non-enveloped ones, may enable environmental transmission. Experimental data on a wide range of enveloped viruses is required due to the variability in virus persistence in the environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ahlam Chaqroun
- Université de Lorraine, CNRS, LCPME, F-54000 Nancy, France
| | | | | | | | - Mickael Boni
- French Armed Forces Biomedical Research Institute, 91220 Brétigny-sur-Orge, France
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Gerba CP, Betancourt WQ. Assessing the Occurrence of Waterborne Viruses in Reuse Systems: Analytical Limits and Needs. Pathogens 2019; 8:pathogens8030107. [PMID: 31336640 PMCID: PMC6789576 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens8030107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2019] [Revised: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Detection of waterborne enteric viruses is an essential tool in assessing the risk of waterborne transmission. Cell culture is considered a gold standard for detection of these viruses. However, it is important to recognize the uncertainty and limitations of enteric virus detection in cell culture. Cell culture cannot support replication of all virus types and strains, and numerous factors control the efficacy of specific virus detection assays, including chemical additives, cell culture passage number, and sequential passage of a sample in cell culture. These factors can result in a 2- to 100-fold underestimation of virus infectivity. Molecular methods reduce the time for detection of viruses and are useful for detection of those that do not produce cytopathogenic effects. The usefulness of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to access virus infectivity has been demonstrated for only a limited number of enteric viruses and is limited by an understanding of the mechanism of virus inactivation. All of these issues are important to consider when assessing waterborne infectious viruses and expected goals on virus reductions needed for recycled water. The use of safety factors to account for this may be useful to ensure that the risks in drinking water and recycled water for potable reuse are minimized.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charles P Gerba
- Water and Energy Sustainable Technology (WEST) Center, The University of Arizona, 2959 W. Calle Agua Nueva, Tucson, AZ 85745, USA
| | - Walter Q Betancourt
- Water and Energy Sustainable Technology (WEST) Center, The University of Arizona, 2959 W. Calle Agua Nueva, Tucson, AZ 85745, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Gerba CP, Rose JB, Singh SN, Farrah SR. Waterborne gastroenteritis and viral hepatitis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/10643388509381732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
4
|
Queiroz AP, Santos FM, Sassaroli A, Hársi CM, Monezi TA, Mehnert DU. Electropositive filter membrane as an alternative for the elimination of PCR inhibitors from sewage and water samples. Appl Environ Microbiol 2001; 67:4614-8. [PMID: 11571164 PMCID: PMC93211 DOI: 10.1128/aem.67.10.4614-4618.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
PCR is the best method for the detection of enteric viruses present at low concentrations in environmental samples. However, some organic and inorganic compounds present in these samples can interfere in the reaction. Many of these substances are cytotoxic, too. The ZP60S filter membranes used in addition to fluorpentane treatment are quite efficient for virus concentration and simultaneous elimination of cytotoxicity from environmental samples. In this study, both procedures were used to promote the elimination of reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) inhibitors from sewage and sewage-polluted creek water. Samples were subjected separately to each of the following procedures: filtration through electropositive filter membranes (ZP60S), organic extraction with Vertrel XF, and filtration through ZP60S followed by organic extraction. Afterwards, aliquots were experimentally inoculated with rotavirus SA-11 RNA and subjected to RT-seminested PCR for amplification of the VP7 gene. Results showed that the ZP60S membranes efficiently eliminated the RT-PCR inhibitors from water samples. The sample processing method was also applied to 31 in natural sewage and creek water samples for detection of naturally occurring rotavirus. A duplex seminested PCR was used for the quick detection of couples of the four rotavirus genotypes (G1 to G4). Eight samples (25.8%) were positive, and rotavirus sequences were not detected in 23 (74.2%). Results were confirmed by direct immunoperoxidase method. In summary, the use of electropositive filter membrane is appropriate for the elimination of substances that can interfere with RT-PCR, obviating additional sample purification methods.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A P Queiroz
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, 05508-900 São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Queiroz AP, Santos FM, Hársi CM, Candeias JM, Monezi TA, Mehnert DU. Factors that can interfere with virus concentration from wastewater when using Zeta Plus 60S filter membranes. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2000; 95:713-6. [PMID: 10998222 DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762000000500018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Zeta plus filter membranes (ZP60S) have been shown to be efficient for rotavirus concentration from wastewater and for the reduction of cytotoxicity for cell cultures. Recently a variability in both properties was observed. In view of the low costs and the high virus recovery rates obtained in the past, we re-evaluated the application of ZP60S filter membranes for virus concentration from environmental samples. Some factors that could interfere with the concentration strategy using ZP60S were also considered and assessed including the type of water to be filtered and the possible release of toxic substances from the membrane matrix during filtration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A P Queiroz
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, 05508-900, Brasil
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Mehnert DU, Stewien KE, Hársi CM, Queiroz AP, Candeias JM, Candeias JA. Detection of rotavirus in sewage and creek water: efficiency of the concentration method. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 1997; 92:97-100. [PMID: 9302419 DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02761997000100020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Simian rotavirus SA-11 experimentally seeded, was recovered from raw domestic sewage by a two-step concentration procedure, using filtration through a positively charged microporous filter (Zeta Plus 60 S) followed by ultracentrifugation, effecting an 8,000-fold concentration. By this method, a mean recovery of 81% +/- 7.5 of the SA-11 virus, was achieved.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D U Mehnert
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Cièncias, Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
|
8
|
Richards GP, Bemiss JA, Sample JD. A simple planimetric method to quantify cytotoxicity in cell culture monolayers. J Virol Methods 1988; 20:33-8. [PMID: 3397401 DOI: 10.1016/0166-0934(88)90037-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Planimetry was shown to be a rapid, simple and reproducible method to quantify gross cytotoxicity in cell culture monolayers. A shellfish extract prepared from blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) was cytotoxic to Buffalo green monkey kidney cells. Exposure of cells to mussel extracts for 1, 2 and greater than or equal to 4 h followed by agar (plaque assay) overlays produced 34, 87, and 100% destruction of the monolayers, respectively, within 72 h. Planigraphs, prepared from tracing areas of cytotoxicity onto sheets of paper, served as permanent records of toxicity which were easily measured by planimeter experienced and nonexperienced scientists. Planimetric procedures may have utility in measuring biological and chemical toxicity as well as physiological stress in cell monolayers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G P Richards
- National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Fisheries Center, Charleston Laboratory, South Carolina 29412
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Influence of adsorption time, rocking, and soluble proteins on the plaque assay of monodispersed poliovirus. Appl Environ Microbiol 1985; 49:744-8. [PMID: 2988435 PMCID: PMC238438 DOI: 10.1128/aem.49.4.744-748.1985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Factors that could affect adsorption of monodispersed poliovirus to cell culture monolayers were evaluated. These included varying the virus adsorption period under static and nonstatic (rocked) conditions and altering the rocking rate. The effects of several soluble proteins on plaque formation, enumeration, and size were also evaluated. Rocking involved the mechanical spread of viruses over cell culture monolayers for 1 to 4 h. Rocked cultures exhibited significantly higher (P less than 0.05) plaque counts than corresponding static cultures. Optimal plaque counts were obtained after a 2-h adsorption period with rocking; increasing the period to 4 h did not significantly increase PFU. Optimal counts were not obtained until greater than or equal to 4 h with static adsorption. Plaque counts were not affected by increasing the rocking rate above one oscillation per minute, but a slower rocking rate resulted in a significant decrease in plaques. Adsorption of poliovirus in the presence of 3% solutions of beef and meat extracts, acid-precipitated oyster protein, two brands of skim milk, and 3 and 10% fetal bovine serum was compared with adsorption in protein-free controls. Significant reductions (P less than 0.05) in plaque counts occurred with one brand of skim milk, whereas 3% beef extract yielded highly significant reductions (P less than 0.01) in plaque counts and appreciable decreases in plaque sizes. Salinities of protein-containing virus inocula were high for beef and meat extracts but somewhat below physiological levels for the remaining inocula. Beef extract-associated reductions in PFU were eliminated after the extracts were dialyzed. Plaque reductions were associated with dialyzable components of the beef extract but not with the inoculum salinity.
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
A seasonal distribution was observed for rotaviruses in sewage by using indirect immunofluorescence. Levels were low from May through September and generally higher during winter and spring. In contrast, no seasonal pattern was observed for total enteroviruses. Limitations of the indirect immunofluorescence assay and enzyme immunoassay for environmental samples are discussed.
Collapse
|
11
|
Seidel KM, Goyal SM, Rao VC, Melnick JL. Concentration of rotavirus and enteroviruses from blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus). Appl Environ Microbiol 1983; 46:1293-6. [PMID: 6318667 PMCID: PMC239566 DOI: 10.1128/aem.46.6.1293-1296.1983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
A simple method for concentration and detection of rotavirus and enteroviruses in the blue crab is described. Virus was separated from tissue homogenates at pH 9.5, concentrated by adsorption to protein precipitates at pH 3.5, and recovered by elution of precipitates at pH 9.2. Test samples of 12 to 15 ml were produced from an initial 100 g of crab tissues. Cat-floc precipitation was used to remove sample toxicity for cell cultures. Recovery effectiveness averaged 52% with poliovirus 1, echovirus 7, and coxsackievirus B5 and 23% with rotavirus SA11.
Collapse
|
12
|
Hurst CJ, Goyke T. Reduction of interfering cytotoxicity associated with wastewater sludge concentrates assayed for indigenous enteric viruses. Appl Environ Microbiol 1983; 46:133-9. [PMID: 6311097 PMCID: PMC239278 DOI: 10.1128/aem.46.1.133-139.1983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Washing, freon extraction, and cationic polyelectrolyte precipitation were compared for their ability to reduce cytotoxicity associated with virus concentrates derived from beef extract eluates of wastewater sludges. Eluates concentrated by hydroextraction were usually much more toxic than those concentrated by organic flocculation. This difference may be due entirely to nondialyzable material naturally present in the beef extract which did not precipitate during flocculation at pH 3.5. Washing inoculated cell monolayers with saline containing calf serum before the addition of agar overlay media was most effective in reducing cytotoxicity, although it resulted in a greater virus loss, as compared with freon extraction and cationic polyelectrolyte precipitation.
Collapse
|
13
|
Smith EM, Gerba CP. Development of a method for detection of human rotavirus in water and sewage. Appl Environ Microbiol 1982; 43:1440-50. [PMID: 6285825 PMCID: PMC244252 DOI: 10.1128/aem.43.6.1440-1450.1982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The simian rotavirus SA11 was used to develop a simple, reliable, and efficient method to concentrate rotavirus from tap water, treated sewage, and raw sewage by absorption to and elution from Filterite fiberglass-epoxy filters. SA11 adsorbed optimally to Filterite filters from water containing 0.5 mM AlCl3 at pH 3.5. Filter-bound virus was eluted with 0.05 M glycine-NaOH supplemented with 10% tryptose phosphate broth at pH 10. SA11 was quantitated by plaque assay, whereas human rotavirus was detected by immunofluorescence. The method was applied to detect rotavirus in raw and treated sewage at two Houston, Tex., sewage treatment plants. The sewage isolates were identified as rotavirus, probably a human strain, based on several criteria. The sewage isolates were detectable by an immunofluorescence test, using anti-SA11 serum which would detect the simian, human bovine, and porcine rotaviruses. No reaction was noted by immunofluorescence with the reoviruses or several common enteroviruses. The sewage isolates were neutralized by convalescent sera from a human adult and infant who had been infected by rotavirus as well as by a hyperimmune serum prepared in guinea pigs against purified human rotavirus. Preimmune or preillness sera did not react with the isolates by neutralization or immunofluorescence. The natural isolates were sensitive to pH 11 and other inactivating agents, similar to SA11. The buoyant density of the sewage isolates in CsCl gradients was 1.36 g/cm3, which is the value usually reported for complete, infectious rotavirus particles. The double-shelled particle diameter was 67.1 +/- 2.4 nm. Finally, electron micrographs of cell lysates inoculated with the sewage isolate showed particles displaying characteristic rotavirus morphology.
Collapse
|