Conservation of a Symbiotic DNA Region in Soybean Root Nodule Bacteria

Genetic variability in Bradyrhizobium japonicum strains nodulating soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill]

Brazil has succeeded in sustaining production of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] by relying mainly on symbiotic N(2) fixation, thanks to the selection and use in inoculants of very effective strains of Bradyrhizobium japonicum and Bradyrhizobium elkanii. It is desirable that rhizobial strains used in inoculants have stable genetic and physiological traits, but experience confirms that rhizobial strains nodulating soybean often lose competitiveness in the field. In this study, soybean cultivar BR 16 was single-inoculated with four B. japonicum strains (CIAT 88, CIAT 89, CIAT 104 and CIAT 105) under aseptic conditions. Forty colonies were isolated from nodules produced by each strain. The progenitor strains, the isolates and four other commercially recommended strains were applied separately to the same cultivar under controlled greenhouse conditions. We observed significant variability in nodulation, shoot dry weight, shoot total N, nodule efficiency (total N mass over nodule mass) and BOX-PCR fingerprinting profiles between variant and progenitor strains. Some variant strains resulted in significantly larger responses in terms of shoot total N, dry weight and nodule efficiency, when compared to their progenitor strain. These results highlight the need for intermittent evaluation of stock bacterial cultures to guarantee effective symbiosis after inoculation. Most importantly, it indicates that it is possible to improve symbiotic effectiveness by screening rhizobial strains for higher N(2) fixation capacity within the natural variability that can be found within each progenitor strain.

New Bradyrhizobium japonicum strains that possess high copy numbers of the repeated sequence RS alpha

In a survey of DNA fingerprints of indigenous Bradyrhizobium japonicum with the species-specific repeated sequences RS alpha and RS beta, 21 isolates from three field sites showed numerous RS-specific hybridization bands. The isolates were designated highly reiterated sequence-possessing (HRS) isolates, and their DNA hybridization profiles were easily distinguished from the normal patterns. Some HRS isolates from two field sites possessed extremely high numbers of RS alpha copies, ranging from 86 to 175 (average, 128), and showed shifts and duplications of nif- and hup-specific hybridization bands. The HRS isolates exhibited slower growth than normal isolates, although no difference in symbiotic properties was detected between the HRS and normal isolates. Nucleotide sequence analysis of 16S rRNA genes showed that HRS isolates were strains of B. japonicum. There was no difference in the spectra of serological and hydrogenase groupings of normal and HRS isolates. Some HRS isolates possessed a tandem repeat RS alpha dimer that is similar to the structure of (IS30)2, which was shown to cause a burst of transpositional rearrangements in Escherichia coli. The results suggest that HRS isolates are derived from normal isolates in individual fields by genome rearrangements that may be mediated by insertion sequences such as RS alpha.

Genetic Structure and Symbiotic Characteristics of a Bradyrhizobium Population Recovered from a Pasture Soil

We examined the genetic structure and symbiotic characteristics of Bradyrhizobium isolates recovered from four legume species ( Lupinus albus [white lupine], Lupinus angustifolius [blue lupine], Ornithopus compressus [yellow serradella], and Macroptilium atropurpureum [sirato]) grown in an Oregon soil. We established that multilocus enzyme electrophoresis (MLEE) can provide insights into the genetic relatedness among Bradyrhizobium strains by showing a positive correlation ( r 2 = ≥0.90) between the relatedness of Bradyrhizobium japonicum strains determined by MLEE at 13 enzyme loci and that determined by other workers using either DNA-DNA hybridization or DNA sequence divergence estimates. MLEE identified 17 electrophoretic types (ETs) among 95 Bradyrhizobium isolates recovered from the four hosts. Although the overall genetic diversity among the ETs ( H = 0.69) is one of the largest measured to date in a local population of any soilborne bacterial species, there was no evidence of multilocus structure (linkage disequilibrium) within the population. The majority of the isolates (73%) were represented by two closely related ETs (2 and 3) which dominated the root nodules of white lupine, serradella, and siratro. In contrast, ET1 dominated nodules of blue lupine. Although representative isolates from all of the 17 ETs nodulated siratro, white lupine, blue lupine, and big trefoil ( Lotus pedunculatus ), they were either completely ineffective or poorly effective at fixing nitrogen on these hosts. Despite the widespread use of serradella as a surrogate host for lupine-nodulating bradyrhizobia, 7 of the 17 ETs did not nodulate this host, and the remaining 10 ETs were ineffective at fixing nitrogen.

Characterization of RFRS9, a second member of the Rhizobium fredii repetitive sequence family from the nitrogen-fixing symbiont R. fredii USDA257

The genome of the nitrogen-fixing symbiont, Rhizobium fredii USDA257, contains nine copies of repetitive sequences known as the R. fredii repetitive sequence (RFRS) family. We previously sequenced RFRS3, which is linked to symbiosis plasmid-borne nodulation genes of this organism and has substantial homology to the T-DNA of Agrobacterium rhizogenes and lesser homology to reiterated sequences of Bradyrhizobium japonicum. Here we characterize a second family member, RFRS9. The EcoRI fragment containing RFRS9 is 1,248 bp in length and contains a single 666-bp open reading frame that is flanked by perfect 8-bp inverted repeats. Nucleic and amino acid sequences corresponding to the C terminus of the putative RFRS9 protein are nearly identical to those of RFRS3, and they retain homology to DNA from A. rhizogenes. The central portion of the RFRS9 protein also appears to be related to the S locus-specific glycoprotein family of pollen stigma incompatibility glycoproteins from Brassica oleracea, which are involved in signal perception. Sequences that define the RFRS family are restricted to the open reading frame of RFRS9 and associated upstream sequences. These regions also contain a second group of repetitive sequences, which is present in four copies within the genome of USDA257. Both families of repetitive sequences are ubiquitous in R. fredii, and they are preferentially localized on symbiosis plasmids. Southern hybridization confirms that sequences homologous to RFRS9 are present in broad-host-range Rhizobium sp. strain NGR234, in A. rhizogenes, and in two biotype 3 strains of Agrobacterium tumefaciens.

Genetic relatedness of Bradyrhizobium japonicum field isolates as revealed by repeated sequences and various other characteristics

Forty-nine isolates of Bradyrhizobium japonicum indigenous to a field where soybeans were grown for 45 years without inoculation were characterized by using four DNA hybridization probes from B. japonicum. nifDK-specific hybridization clearly divided the isolates into two divergent groups. Diversity in repeated-sequence (RS)-specific hybridization was observed; 44 isolates derived from 41 nodules were divided into 33 different RS fingerprint groups. Cluster analysis showed that the RS fingerprints were correlated with the nif and hup genotypes. We found multiple bands of RS-specific hybridization for two isolates that differed from the patterns of the other isolates. These results suggest that RS fingerprinting is a valuable tool for evaluating the genetic structure of indigenous B. japonicum populations.

Isoflavonoid-inducible resistance to the phytoalexin glyceollin in soybean rhizobia

The antibacterial effect of the soybean phytoalexin glyceollin was assayed using a liquid microculture technique. Log-phase cells of Bradyrhizobium japonicum and Sinorhizobium fredii were sensitive to glyceollin. As revealed by growth rates and survival tests, these species were able to tolerate glyceollin after adaptation. Incubation in low concentrations of the isoflavones genistein and daidzein induced resistance to potentially bactericidal concentrations of glyceollin. This inducible resistance is not due to degradation or detoxification of the phytoalexin. The inducible resistance could be detected in B. japonicum 110spc4 and 61A101, representing the two taxonomically divergent groups of this species, as well as in S. fredii HH103, suggesting that this trait is a feature of all soybean-nodulating rhizobia. Glyceollin resistance was also inducible in a nodD1D2YABC deletion mutant of B. japonicum 110spc4, suggesting that there exists another recognition site for flavonoids besides the nodD genes identified so far. Exudate preparations from roots infected with Phytophthora megasperma f. sp. glycinea exhibited a strong bactericidal effect toward glyceollin-sensitive cells of B. japonicum. This killing effect was not solely due to glyceollin since purified glyceollin at concentrations similar to those present in exudate preparations had a much lower toxicity. However, glyceollin-resistant cells were also more resistant to exudate preparations than glyceollin-sensitive cells. Isoflavonoid-inducible resistance must therefore be ascribed an important role for survival of rhizobia in the rhizosphere of soybean roots.