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Andretta CWS, Rosa RM, Tondo EC, Gaylarde CC, Henriques JAP. Identification and molecular characterization of a Bacillus subtilis IS13 strain involved in the biodegradation of 4,5,6-trichloroguaiacol. CHEMOSPHERE 2004; 55:631-639. [PMID: 15006516 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2003.11.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2002] [Revised: 09/02/2003] [Accepted: 11/29/2003] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
4,5,6-Trichloroguaiacol (4,5,6-TCG) is a recalcitrant organochlorine compound produced during pulp bleaching and a potential environmental hazard in paper mill effluents. We report here the identification by biochemical tests and molecular biological analysis, using 16S ribotyping, of a 4,5,6-TCG-degrading bacterium, identified as a strain of Bacillus subtilis that is most closely related according to the phylogenetic analysis to B. subtilis strain Lactipan (alignment score 99%). Biodegradation of 4,5,6-TCG by this organism in a mineral salts medium was shown to occur only when the inoculum was composed of cells in the stationary phase of growth and to be accelerated by an additional carbon source, such as glucose, sucrose, glycerol or molasses. An additional nitrogen source (as ammonium sulfate) did not affect the rate of 4,5,6-TGC removal. No plasmids were detected in the bacterial cells. This is the first strain of B. subtilis which degrades chlorophenols and shows that 4,5,6-TCG is not degraded by cometabolism and that the gene encoding this characteristic is probably located on the chromosome. The lack of requirement for additional nitrogen source, the ability to enhance biodegradation by adding cheap carbon sources such as molasses, and the fact the trait is likely to be stable since it is encoded on the cell chromosome, are all characteristics that make the organism an attractive possibility for treatment of wastes and environments polluted with organochlorine compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- C W S Andretta
- Centro de Biotecnologia/Departamento de Biofísica, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Cx. Postal 15005, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, Porto Alegre, RS, CEP 91501-970, Brazil
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Tondo E, Andretta C, Souza C, Monteiro A, Henriques J, Ayub M. High biodegradation levels of 4,5,6-trichloroguaiacol by Bacillus sp. isolated from cellulose pulp mill effluent. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998. [DOI: 10.1590/s0001-37141998000400006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
An aerobic Gram positive spore-forming bacterium was isolated from cellulose pulp mill effluent. This microorganism, identified as Bacillus sp. and named IS13, was able to rapidly degrade the organic chlorinated compound 4,5,6-trichloroguaiacol (4,5,6-TCG) from a culture containing 50 mg/l, which corresponds to about 3x104 times the concentration found in the original effluent. The biodegradation of this compound, usually found in cellulose pulp mill effluents, was evaluated by spectrophotometry and gas chromatography analysis. During 4,5,6-TCG decreasing, the lack of by-products had shown by such analysis lead to verify the possibility of either adsorption or absorption of 4,5,6-TCG by the cells, instead of real biodegradation. There were no traces of 4,5,6-TCG after lysozyme and SDS cell disruption. Vigorous extraction was applied before spectrophotometry analysis and there was no release of residual 4,5,6-TCG. Plasmid isolation was attempted by using different protocols. The best results were reached by CTAB method, but no plasmid DNA was found in Bacillus sp. IS13. The results suggest that genes located at the bacterial chromosome might mediate the high decrease of 4,5,6-TCG. The importance of this work is that, in being a natural ocurring microorganism, Bacillus sp. IS13, can be used as inoculum in plant effluents to best organochlorinated compounds biodegradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- E.C. Tondo
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
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Fetzner S, Lingens F. Bacterial dehalogenases: biochemistry, genetics, and biotechnological applications. Microbiol Rev 1994; 58:641-85. [PMID: 7854251 PMCID: PMC372986 DOI: 10.1128/mr.58.4.641-685.1994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
This review is a survey of bacterial dehalogenases that catalyze the cleavage of halogen substituents from haloaromatics, haloalkanes, haloalcohols, and haloalkanoic acids. Concerning the enzymatic cleavage of the carbon-halogen bond, seven mechanisms of dehalogenation are known, namely, reductive, oxygenolytic, hydrolytic, and thiolytic dehalogenation; intramolecular nucleophilic displacement; dehydrohalogenation; and hydration. Spontaneous dehalogenation reactions may occur as a result of chemical decomposition of unstable primary products of an unassociated enzyme reaction, and fortuitous dehalogenation can result from the action of broad-specificity enzymes converting halogenated analogs of their natural substrate. Reductive dehalogenation either is catalyzed by a specific dehalogenase or may be mediated by free or enzyme-bound transition metal cofactors (porphyrins, corrins). Desulfomonile tiedjei DCB-1 couples energy conservation to a reductive dechlorination reaction. The biochemistry and genetics of oxygenolytic and hydrolytic haloaromatic dehalogenases are discussed. Concerning the haloalkanes, oxygenases, glutathione S-transferases, halidohydrolases, and dehydrohalogenases are involved in the dehalogenation of different haloalkane compounds. The epoxide-forming halohydrin hydrogen halide lyases form a distinct class of dehalogenases. The dehalogenation of alpha-halosubstituted alkanoic acids is catalyzed by halidohydrolases, which, according to their substrate and inhibitor specificity and mode of product formation, are placed into distinct mechanistic groups. beta-Halosubstituted alkanoic acids are dehalogenated by halidohydrolases acting on the coenzyme A ester of the beta-haloalkanoic acid. Microbial systems offer a versatile potential for biotechnological applications. Because of their enantiomer selectivity, some dehalogenases are used as industrial biocatalysts for the synthesis of chiral compounds. The application of dehalogenases or bacterial strains in environmental protection technologies is discussed in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Fetzner
- Institut für Mikrobiologie der Universität Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
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Nohynek LJ, Häggblom MM, Palleroni NJ, Kronqvist K, Nurmiaho-Lassila EL, Salkinoja-Salonen M. Characterization of a Mycobacterium fortuitum Strain Capable of Degrading Polychlorinated Phenolic Compounds. Syst Appl Microbiol 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/s0723-2020(11)80257-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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H�ggblom MM, Berman MH, Frazer AC, Young LY. Anaerobic O-demethylation of chlorinated guaiacols byAcetobacterium woodii andEubacterium limosum. Biodegradation 1993. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00702327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Uotila JS, Salkinoja-Salonen MS, Apajalahti JH. Dechlorination of pentachlorophenol by membrane bound enzymes of Rhodococcus chlorophenolicus PCP-I. Biodegradation 1992; 2:25-31. [PMID: 1368474 DOI: 10.1007/bf00122422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Dechlorination (para-hydroxylation) of pentachlorophenol (PCP) and tetrachloro-para-hydroquinone (TeCH) and O-methylation of TeCH were demonstrated in cell extracts of Rhodococcus chlorophenolicus PCP-I. PCP para-hydroxylating activity was membrane bound, whereas TeCH dechlorinating enzyme was soluble. The PCP para-hydroxylating enzyme was solubilized by Triton X-100 and the requirement for both FAD and NADPH was shown. The dechlorinating activities were inducible in contrast to the constitutive TeCH O-methylating activity. The PCP para-hydroxylation was inhibited by its product TeCH, by anoxic conditions, and by different inhibitors of P450. Participation of this cytochrome in the PCP hydroxylation was confirmed by the appearance of a carbon monoxide dependent peak of absorbance at 457 nm in the membrane fraction prepared from PCP degrading cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Uotila
- University of Helsinki, Department of General Microbiology, Finland
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Abstract
Considerable progress has been made in the last few years in understanding the mechanisms of microbial degradation of halogenated aromatic compounds. Much is already known about the degradation mechanisms under aerobic conditions, and metabolism under anaerobiosis has lately received increasing attention. The removal of the halogen substituent is a key step in degradation of halogenated aromatics. This may occur as an initial step via reductive, hydrolytic or oxygenolytic mechanisms, or after cleavage of the aromatic ring at a later stage of metabolism. In addition to degradation, several biotransformation reactions, such as methylation and polymerization, may take place and produce more toxic or recalcitrant metabolites. Studies with pure bacterial and fungal cultures have given detailed information on the biodegradation pathways of several halogenated aromatic compounds. Several of the key enzymes have been purified or studied in cell extracts, and there is an increasing understanding of the organization and regulation of the genes involved in haloaromatic degradation. This review will focus on the biodegradation and biotransformation pathways that have been established for halogenated phenols, phenoxyalkanoic acids, benzoic acids, benzenes, anilines and structurally related halogenated aromatic pesticides. There is a growing interest in developing microbiological methods for clean-up of soil and water contaminated with halogenated aromatic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M Häggblom
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, New York University Medical Center, NY
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Uotila JS, Kitunen VH, Saastamoinen T, Coote T, Häggblom MM, Salkinoja-Salonen MS. Characterization of aromatic dehalogenases of Mycobacterium fortuitum CG-2. J Bacteriol 1992; 174:5669-75. [PMID: 1512199 PMCID: PMC206514 DOI: 10.1128/jb.174.17.5669-5675.1992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Two different dehalogenation enzymes were found in cell extracts of Mycobacterium fortuitum CG-2. The first enzyme was a halophenol para-hydroxylase, a membrane-associated monooxygenase that required molecular oxygen and catalyzed the para-hydroxylation and dehalogenation of chlorinated, fluorinated, and brominated phenols to the corresponding halogenated hydroquinones. The membrane preparation with this activity was inhibited by cytochrome P-450 inhibitors and also showed an increase in the A448 caused by CO. The second enzyme hydroxylated and reductively dehalogenated tetrahalohydroquinones to 1,2,4-trihydroxybenzene. This halohydroquinone-dehalogenating enzyme was soluble, did not require oxygen, and was not inhibited by cytochrome P-450 inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Uotila
- Department of General Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Finland
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Armstrong S, Patel TR. Fortuitous resorcinol metabolism by a phloroglucinol-inducedRhodococcus sp. BPG-8. J Basic Microbiol 1992. [DOI: 10.1002/jobm.3620320602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Abstract
As a result of natural production and contamination of the environment by xenobiotic compounds, halogenated substances are widely distributed in the biosphere. Concern arises as a result of the toxic, carcinogenic, and potential teratogenic nature of these substances. The biotransformations of such halogenated substances are reviewed, with particular emphasis on the biocatalytic cleavage of the carbon-halogen bonds. The physiology, biochemistry, and genetics of the biological system involved in the dehalogenation reactions are discussed for three groups of organohalogens: (1) the haloacids, (2) the haloaromatics, and (3) the haloalkanes. Finally, the biotechnological applications of these microbial transformations are discussed. This includes prospects for their future application in biosynthetic processes for the synthesis of halogenated intermediates or novel compounds and also the use of such systems for the detoxification and degradation of environmental pollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Hardman
- International Institute of Biotechnology, Canterbury, Kent, UK
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Neilson AH. The biodegradation of halogenated organic compounds. THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BACTERIOLOGY 1990; 69:445-70. [PMID: 2292512 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1990.tb01536.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A H Neilson
- Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Stockholm
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Häggblom M. Mechanisms of bacterial degradation and transformation of chlorinated monoaromatic compounds. J Basic Microbiol 1990; 30:115-41. [PMID: 2191115 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.3620300214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Chloroaromatics are xenobiotic compounds of environmental concern. They can be removed from the environment by (bio)degradation or by (bio)transformation. Recognition of the mechanisms and requirements of their biodegradation is of cardinal importance for understanding the fate of these chemicals in the environment, and for developing methods for biological treatment of wastes containing compounds of this type. Cleavage of the carbon-halogen bond is the critical step in degradation of chloroaromatics. As exemplified with chlorophenols, chlorobenzoates and chlorobenzenes in this review, two distinct strategies are employed by bacteria for degradation of chlorinated aromatic compounds: the particular chlorine substituents are removed either directly from the aromatic ring (as an initial step in degradation) or after oxygenative ring cleavage (from chlorinated aliphatic intermediates). Direct elimination of chlorine substituents from the aromatic ring occurs by displacement with either hydroxyl groups (hydrolytically or oxygenolytically) or hydrogen atoms (reductive dechlorination). Dechlorinations of the latter type require reducing power and are significant in anaerobic environments, but have also been observed with strictly aerobic bacteria. Various biotransformation reactions, with only minor alteration of the parent compound, are an alternative to biogradation. Two environmentally significant transformation reactions discussed here are O-methylation and O-demethylation. The capability to O-methylate chlorinated hydroxybenzenes seems to be widespread in bacteria. O-Methylation is an environmentally important transformation reaction, since methylation increases the lipophilicity of the compound and thus the potential for bioaccumulation. Bacterial O-demethylation of chlorinated methoxylated compounds has been observed under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Häggblom
- Department of Microbiology, New York University Medical Center, N.Y. 10016
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Häggblom MM, Janke D, Salkinoja-Salonen MS. Transformation of chlorinated phenolic compounds in the genusRhodococcus. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 1989; 18:147-159. [PMID: 24196130 DOI: 10.1007/bf02030123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The ability of strains of the genusRhodococcus to transform chlorinated phenolic compounds was studied. Noninduced cells of several strains ofRhodococcus, covering at least eight species, were found to attack mono-, di-, and trichlorophenols by hydroxylation at theortho position to chlorocatechols. 3-chlorophenol and 4-chlorophenol were converted to 4-chlorocatechol, 2,3-dichlorophenol to 3,4-dichlorocatechol, and 3,4-di-chlorophenol to 4,5-dichlorocatechol. The chlorocatechols accumulated to nearly stoichiometric amounts. Other mono- and dichlorophenols were not transformed. The ability of the strains to hydroxylate chlorophenols correlated with the ability to grow on unsubstituted phenol as the sole source of carbon and energy. SeveralRhodococcus strains attacked chlorophenolic compounds by both hydroxylation and O-methylation. 2,3,4-, 2,3,5- and 3,4,5-trichlorophenol were hydroxylated to trichlorocatechol and then sequentially O-methylated to chloroguaiacol and chloroveratrole. Tetrachlo-rohydroquinone was O-methylated sequentially to tetrachloro-4-methoxy-phenol and tetrachloro-1,4-dimethoxybenzene. Several of the active strains had no known history of exposure to any chloroaromatic compound. Rhodococci are widely distributed in soil and sludge and these results suggest that this genus may play an important role in transformation of chlorinated phenolic compounds in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M Häggblom
- Department of General Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Mannerheimintie 172, SF-00300, Helsinki, Finland
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Häggblom MM, Janke D, Salkinoja-Salonen MS. Hydroxylation and Dechlorination of Tetrachlorohydroquinone by
Rhodococcus
sp. Strain CP-2 Cell Extracts. Appl Environ Microbiol 1989; 55:516-9. [PMID: 16347859 PMCID: PMC184144 DOI: 10.1128/aem.55.2.516-519.1989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A cell extract of a polychlorophenol-degrading bacterium,
Rhodococcus
sp. strain CP-2, isolated from chlorophenol-contaminated soil, was shown to dechlorinate tetrachlorohydroquinone, the first intermediate in pentachlorophenol and 2,3,5,6-tetrachlorophenol degradation. Degradation of tetrachlorohydroquinone was catalyzed by a soluble enzyme(s). The reaction sequence for complete dechlorination involved hydroxylation and three reductive dechlorinations, producing 1,2,4-trihydroxybenzene. All chlorines were thus removed from the polychlorinated compound before ring cleavage.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M Häggblom
- Department of General Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Mannerheimintie 172, SF-00300 Helsinki, Finland
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Factors Determining the Fate of Organic Chemicals in the Environment: the Role of Bacterial Transformations and Binding to Sediments. SPRINGER SERIES ON ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 1989. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-61334-0_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Häggblom MM, Nohynek LJ, Salkinoja-Salonen MS. Degradation and O-methylation of chlorinated phenolic compounds by Rhodococcus and Mycobacterium strains. Appl Environ Microbiol 1988; 54:3043-52. [PMID: 3223768 PMCID: PMC204425 DOI: 10.1128/aem.54.12.3043-3052.1988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Three polychlorophenol-degrading Rhodococcus and Mycobacterium strains were isolated independently from soil contaminated with chlorophenol wood preservative and from sludge of a wastewater treatment facility of a kraft pulp bleaching plant. Rhodococcus sp. strain CG-1 and Mycobacterium sp. strain CG-2, isolated from tetrachloroguaiacol enrichment, and Rhodococcus sp. strain CP-2, isolated from pentachlorophenol enrichment, mineralized pentachlorophenol and degraded several other polychlorinated phenols, guaiacols (2-methoxyphenols), and syringols (2,6-dimethoxyphenols) at micromolar concentrations and were sensitive to the toxic effects of pentachlorophenol. All three strains initiated degradation of the chlorophenols by para-hydroxylation, producing chlorinated para-hydroquinones, which were then further degraded. Parallel to degradation, strains CG-1, CG-2, and CP-2 also O-methylated nearly all chlorinated phenols, guaiacols, syringols, and hydroquinones. O-methylation of chlorophenols was a slow reaction compared with degradation. The preferred substrates of the O-methylating enzyme(s) were those with the hydroxyl group flanked by two chlorine substituents. O-methylation was constitutively expressed, whereas degradation of chlorinated phenolic compounds was inducible.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M Häggblom
- Department of General Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Finland
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Häggblom MM, Apajalahti JH, Salkinoja-Salonen MS. O-Methylation of Chlorinated
para
-Hydroquinones by
Rhodococcus chlorophenolicus. Appl Environ Microbiol 1988; 54:1818-24. [PMID: 16347691 PMCID: PMC202751 DOI: 10.1128/aem.54.7.1818-1824.1988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhodococcus chlorophenolicus
PCP-I, a degrader of polychlorinated phenols, guaiacols (2-methoxyphenols), and syringols (2,6-dimethoxyphenols), was shown to O-methylate the degradation intermediate, a chlorinated
para
-hydroquinone, into 4-methoxyphenol. O-methylation was constitutively expressed, whereas the degradation of chlorophenols and chlorohydroquinones was inducible in
R. chlorophenolicus.
The O-methylating reaction required two hydroxyl groups in positions
para
to each other.
R. chlorophenolicus
selectively methylated the hydroxyl group flanked by two chlorine substituents. Tetrachlorohydroquinone, trichlorohydroquinone, and 2,6-dichlorohydroquinone were methylated into tetrachloro-4-methoxyphenol, 2,3,5-trichloro-4-methoxyphenol, and 3,5-dichloro-4-methoxyphenol, respectively. Chlorohydroquinones with only one chlorine adjacent to a hydroxyl group were methylated only in trace amounts, and no metabolite was formed from hydroquinone. The degradation intermediates formed in hydroxylation of tetrachloroguaiacol and trichlorosyringol by
R. chlorophenolicus
were O-methylated into two isomeric trichlorodimethoxyphenols and two isomeric dichlorotrimethoxyphenols, respectively.
R. chlorophenolicus
also degraded the polychlorinated methylation products (tetrachlorinated and trichlorinated 4-methoxyphenols), but not mono- and dichlorinated 4-methoxyphenols.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M Häggblom
- Department of General Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Mannerheimintie 172, SF-00280 Helsinki, Finland
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