Peptide surface display and secretion using two LPXTG-containing surface proteins from Lactobacillus fermentum BR11

Biodetoxification of fungal mycotoxins zearalenone by engineered probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus reuteri with surface-displayed lactonohydrolase

Zearalenone (ZEN) is one of the common mycotoxins with quite high occurrence rate and is harmful to animal and human health. Lactobacillus reuteri is known as a probiotic bacterium with active immune stimulating and high inhibitory activity against pathogenic microorganisms. In this study, we expressed the lactonohydrolase from Rhinocladiella mackenziei CBS 650.93 (RmZHD) in L. reuteri via secretion and surface-display patterns, respectively. Endogenous signal peptides from L. reuteri were first screened to achieve high expression for efficient ZEN hydrolysis. For secretion expression, signal peptide from collagen-binding protein showed the best performance, while the one from fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase worked best for surface-display expression. Both of the engineered strains could completely hydrolyze 5.0 mg/L ZEN in 8 h without detrimental effects on bacterial growth. The acid and bile tolerance assay and anchoring experiment on Caco-2 cells indicated both of the abovementioned engineered strains could survive during digestion and colonize on intestinal tract, in which the surface-displayed strain had a better performance on ZEN hydrolysis. Biodetoxification of model ZEN-contaminated maize kernels showed the surface-displayed L. reuteri strain could completely hydrolyze 2.5 mg/kg ZEN within 4 h under low water condition. The strain could also efficiently detoxify natural ZEN-contaminated corn flour in the in vitro digestion model system. The colonized property, survival capacity, and the efficient hydrolysis performance as well as probiotic functionality make L. reuteri strain an ideal host for detoxifying residual ZEN in vivo, which shows a great potential for application in feed industry.

Putative Adhesion Factors in Vaginal Lactobacillus gasseri DSM 14869: Functional Characterization

Lactobacilli play an important role in the maintenance of a healthy vaginal microbiota, and some select species are widely used as probiotics. Vaginal isolates of Lactobacillus gasseri DSM 14869 and Lactobacillus rhamnosus DSM 14870 were previously selected to develop the probiotic EcoVag capsules and showed therapeutic effects in women with bacterial vaginosis (BV). However, the molecular mechanisms involved in their probiotic activity are largely unknown. In this study, we identified three cell surface molecules in L. gasseri DSM 14869 that promote adhesion to vaginal epithelial cells (VEC) by constructing dedicated knockout mutants, including exopolysaccharides (EPSs), a protein containing MucBP-like domains (N506_1778), and a putative novel adhesin (N506_1709) with rib/alpha-like domain repeats. EPS knockout mutants revealed 20-fold and 14-fold increases in adhesion to Caco-2 and HeLa cells, respectively, compared with wild type, while the adhesion to VEC was reduced 30% by the mutation, suggesting that EPSs might mediate tissue tropism for vaginal cells. A significant decrease in adhesion to Caco-2 cells, HeLa cells, and VEC was observed in the N506_1778 knockout mutant. The N506_1709 mutant showed no significant difference for the adhesion to Caco-2 and HeLa cells compared with wild type (WT); in contrast, the adhesion to VEC revealed a significant decrease (42%), suggesting that N506_1709 might mediate specific binding to stratified squamous epithelial cells, and this putative novel adhesin was annotated as Lactobacillus vaginal epithelium adhesin (LVEA). Thus, we have discovered an important role for EPSs and a novel adhesin, LVEA, in the adhesive capacity of a vaginal probiotic Lactobacillus strain.IMPORTANCE Lactobacilli are known to contribute to the maintenance of a healthy vaginal microbiota and some are selected as probiotics for the prevention or treatment of urogenital diseases, such as bacterial vaginosis. However, the molecular mechanisms for these health-promoting effects are not fully understood. Here, we functionally identified three cell surface factors of a Lactobacillus gasseri strain potentially involved in its adhesion to vaginal epithelial cells, including exopolysaccharides (EPSs) and two sortase-dependent proteins (N506_1778 and N506_1709). We could demonstrate the tissue-specific adhesion of EPSs to vaginal cells and that N506_1709 might be a novel adhesin specifically mediating bacterial binding to stratified squamous epithelial cells. The results provide important new information on the molecular mechanisms of vaginal Lactobacillus spp. adhesion.

Display of a β-mannanase and a chitosanase on the cell surface of Lactobacillus plantarum towards the development of whole-cell biocatalysts

BACKGROUND

Lactobacillus plantarum is considered as a potential cell factory because of its GRAS (generally recognized as safe) status and long history of use in food applications. Its possible applications include in situ delivery of proteins to a host, based on its ability to persist at mucosal surfaces of the human intestine, and the production of food-related enzymes. By displaying different enzymes on the surface of L. plantarum cells these could be used as whole-cell biocatalysts for the production of oligosaccharides. In this present study, we aimed to express and display a mannanase and a chitosanase on the cell surface of L. plantarum.

RESULTS

ManB, a mannanase from Bacillus licheniformis DSM13, and CsnA, a chitosanase from Bacillus subtilis ATCC 23857 were fused to different anchoring motifs of L. plantarum for covalent attachment to the cell surface, either via an N-terminal lipoprotein anchor (Lp_1261) or a C-terminal cell wall anchor (Lp_2578), and the resulting fusion proteins were expressed in L. plantarum WCFS1. The localization of the recombinant proteins on the bacterial cell surface was confirmed by flow cytometry and immunofluorescence microscopy. The highest mannanase and chitosanase activities obtained for displaying L. plantarum cells were 890 U and 1360 U g dry cell weight, respectively. In reactions with chitosan and galactomannans, L. plantarum CsnA- and ManB-displaying cells produced chito- and manno-oligosaccharides, respectively, as analyzed by high performance anion exchange chromatography (HPAEC) and mass spectrometry (MS). Surface-displayed ManB is able to break down galactomannan (LBG) into smaller manno-oligosaccharides, which can support growth of L. plantarum.

CONCLUSION

This study shows that mannanolytic and chitinolytic enzymes can be anchored to the cell surface of L. plantarum in active forms. L. plantarum chitosanase- and mannanase-displaying cells should be of interest for the production of potentially 'prebiotic' oligosaccharides. This approach, with the enzyme of interest being displayed on the cell surface of a food-grade organism, may also be applied in production processes relevant for food industry.

Oral Vaccine Development by Molecular Display Methods Using Microbial Cells

Oral vaccines are easier to administer than injectable vaccines. To induce an adequate immune response using vaccines, antigenic proteins are usually combined with adjuvant materials. This chapter presents methodologies for the design of oral vaccines using molecular display technology. In molecular display technology, antigenic proteins are displayed on a microbial cell surface with adjuvant ability. This technology would provide a quite convenient process to produce oral vaccines when the DNA sequence of an efficient antigenic protein is available. As an example, oral vaccines against candidiasis were introduced using two different molecular display systems with Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Lactobacillus casei.

Formation of In Vitro Mixed-Species Biofilms by Lactobacillus pentosus and Yeasts Isolated from Spanish-Style Green Table Olive Fermentations

The present work details the in vitro interactions between Lactobacillus pentosus and yeast strains isolated from table olive processing to form mixed biofilms. Among the different pairs assayed, the strongest biofilms were obtained from L. pentosus and Candida boidinii strain cocultures. However, biofilm formation was inhibited in the presence of d-(+)-mannose. In addition, biofilm formation by C. boidinii monoculture was stimulated in the absence of cell-cell contact with L. pentosus. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that a sort of "sticky" material formed by the yeasts contributed to substrate adherence. Hence, the data obtained in this work suggest that yeast-lactobacilli biofilms may be favored by the presence of a specific mate of yeast and L. pentosus, and that more than one mechanism might be implicated in the biofilm formation. This knowledge will help in the design of appropriate mixed starter cultures of L. pentosus-yeast species pairs that are able to improve the quality and safety of Spanish-style green table olive processing.

High quality draft genome of Lactobacillus kunkeei EFB6, isolated from a German European foulbrood outbreak of honeybees

The lactic acid bacterium Lactobacillus kunkeei has been described as an inhabitant of fructose-rich niches. Here we report on the genome sequence of L. kunkeei EFB6, which has been isolated from a honeybee larva infected with European foulbrood. The draft genome comprises 1,566,851 bp and 1,417 predicted protein-encoding genes.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae transcriptional reprograming due to bacterial contamination during industrial scale bioethanol production

BACKGROUND

The bioethanol production system used in Brazil is based on the fermentation of sucrose from sugarcane feedstock by highly adapted strains of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Bacterial contaminants present in the distillery environment often produce yeast-bacteria cellular co-aggregation particles that resemble yeast-yeast cell adhesion (flocculation). The formation of such particles is undesirable because it slows the fermentation kinetics and reduces the overall bioethanol yield.

RESULTS

In this study, we investigated the molecular physiology of one of the main S. cerevisiae strains used in Brazilian bioethanol production, PE-2, under two contrasting conditions: typical fermentation, when most yeast cells are in suspension, and co-aggregated fermentation. The transcriptional profile of PE-2 was assessed by RNA-seq during industrial scale fed-batch fermentation. Comparative analysis between the two conditions revealed transcriptional profiles that were differentiated primarily by a deep gene repression in the co-aggregated samples. The data also indicated that Lactobacillus fermentum was likely the main bacterial species responsible for cellular co-aggregation and for the high levels of organic acids detected in the samples.

CONCLUSIONS

Here, we report the high-resolution gene expression profiling of strain PE-2 during industrial-scale fermentations and the transcriptional reprograming observed under co-aggregation conditions. This dataset constitutes an important resource that can provide support for further development of this key yeast biocatalyst.

Display of Fibrobacter succinogenes β-glucanase on the cell surface of Lactobacillus reuteri

The aim of this study was to display a rumen bacterial β-glucanase on the cell surface of a probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri strain. The β-glucan degrading ability and the adhesion capability of the genetically modified strain were evaluated. The β-glucanase (Glu) from Fibrobacter succinogenes was fused to the C-terminus of collagen-binding protein (Cnb) from L. reuteri and then expressed by L. reuteri Pg4 as a recombinant Cnb-Glu-His(6) fusion protein. Confocal immunofluorescence microscopy and flow cytometric analysis of the transformed strain L. reuteri pNZ-cnb/glu demonstrated that Cnb-Glu-His(6) fusion protein was displayed on its cell surface. In addition, L. reuteri pNZ-cnb/glu acquired the capacity to break down barley β-glucan and showed higher adhesion capability, in comparison with the parental strain L. reuteri Pg4. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of successful display of fibrolytic enzymes on the cell surface of intestinal lactobacilli.

Expression of Lactobacillus reuteri Pg4 collagen-binding protein gene in Lactobacillus casei ATCC 393 increases its adhesion ability to Caco-2 cells

The collagen-binding protein gene cnb was cloned from the probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri strain Pg4. The DNA sequence of the cnb gene (792 bp) has an open reading frame encoding 263 amino acids with a calculated molecular weight of 28.5 kDa. The cnb gene was constructed so as to constitutively express under the control of the Lactococcus lactis lacA promoter and was transformed into Lactobacillus casei ATCC 393, a strain isolated from dairy products with poor ability to adhere to intestinal epithelial cells. Confocal immunofluorescence microscopic and flow cytometric analysis of the transformed strain Lb. casei pNZ-cnb indicated that Cnb was displayed on its cell surface. Lb. casei pNZ-cnb not only showed a higher ability to adhere to Caco-2 cells but also exhibited a higher competition ability against Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes adhesion to Caco-2 cells than Lb. casei ATCC 393.

Effect of growth at low pH on the cell surface properties of a typical strain of Lactobacillus casei group

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Although members of the Lactobacillus casei group are known to survive under acidic conditions, the underlying mechanisms of growth at acidic condition and the impact of low pH on the relative level of protein expression at the cell surface remain poorly studied.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

After confirming the taxonomy of L. casei strain GCRL 12 which was originally isolated from cheese and confirmed by 16S rRNA sequence analysis, the impact of acidic pH on growth rate was determined.

RESULTS

Late log-phase cells cultured at pH 4.0 showed obvious changes in Gram staining properties while transmission electron microscopy analysis revealed evidence of structural distortions of the cell surface relative to the controls cultured at pH 6.5. When comparing cytosolic or whole cell preparations on SDS-PAGE, few changes in protein profiles were observed under the two growth conditions. However, analysis of surface protein extracted by 5M LiCl demonstrated changes in the proportions of proteins present in the molecular weight range of 10 to 80 kDa, with some proteins more dominant at pH 6.5 and other at pH 4.

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that surface proteins of this strain are associated with growth and survival at low pH. The function of these proteins is subject to further investigation.

Display of alpha-amylase on the surface of Corynebacterium glutamicum cells by using NCgl1221 as the anchoring protein, and production of glutamate from starch

We developed a new cell surface display system in Corynebacterium glutamicum based on the C-terminally truncated NCgl1221 anchor protein to increase L-glutamate production from starch directly. The C-terminally truncated NCgl1221 protein is a mutant NCgl1221 and leads to the constitutive export of L-glutamate. The N terminus of alpha-amylase (AmyA) was fused to truncated NCgl1221, and the resulting fusion protein was expressed on the cell surface by IPTG induction. Localization of the fusion protein was confirmed by immunofluorescence microscopy and flow cytometric analysis. The results of L-glutamate fermentation showed that the soluble starch was utilized to grow and produce L-glutamate by the recombinant strain displaying AmyA. The amount of soluble starch was reduced from 30.0 +/- 2.8 to 4.5 +/- 0.7 g/l under non-inducing condition and from 50.0 +/- 2.4 to 12.5 +/- 1.1 g/l under biotin limitation in 36 h. The glutamate concentration in the medium was transiently increased in 14 h under no induction, while under biotin-limiting condition, glutamate production was continuously elevated during fermentation. The amount of glutamate reached 19.3 +/- 2.1 g/l after 26 h of fermentation with biotin limitation, which was greater than that produced by the strain using PgsA, one of the poly-gamma-glutamate synthetase complexes, as the anchor protein under the same condition. Therefore, the truncated NCgl1221 anchor protein has more advantages than the PgsA anchor protein in glutamate fermentation because truncated NCgl1221 leads to the constitutive export of L-glutamate without any treatments.

Cystathionine gamma-lyase is a component of cystine-mediated oxidative defense in Lactobacillus reuteri BR11

Lactobacillus reuteri BR11 possesses a novel mechanism of oxidative defense involving an abundant cystine ABC transporter encoded by the cyuABC gene cluster. Large amounts of thiols, including H(2)S, are secreted upon cystine uptake by the CyuC transporter. A cystathionine gamma-lyase (cgl) gene is cotranscribed with the cyu genes in several L. reuteri strains and was hypothesized to participate in cystine-mediated oxidative defense by producing reducing equivalents. This hypothesis was tested with L. reuteri BR11 by constructing a cgl mutant (PNG901) and comparing it to a similarly constructed cyuC mutant (PNG902). Although Cgl was required for H(2)S production from cystine, it was not crucial for oxidative defense in de Mann-Rogosa-Sharpe medium, in contrast to CyuC, whose inactivation resulted in lag-phase arrest in aerated cultures. The importance of Cgl in oxidative defense was seen only in the presence of hemin, which poses severe oxidative stress. The growth defects in aerated cultures of both mutants were alleviated by supplementation with cysteine (and cystine in the cgl mutant) but not methionine, with the cyuC mutant showing a much higher concentration requirement. We conclude that L. reuteri BR11 requires a high concentration of exogenous cysteine/cystine to grow optimally under aerobic conditions. This requirement is fulfilled by the abundant CyuC transporter, which has probably arisen due to the broad substrate specificity of Cgl, resulting in a futile pathway which degrades cystine taken up by the CyuC transporter to H(2)S. Cgl plays a secondary role in oxidative defense by its well-documented function of cysteine biosynthesis.

Random mutagenesis identifies novel genes involved in the secretion of antimicrobial, cell wall-lytic enzymes by Lactococcus lactis

Lactococcus lactis is a gram-positive bacterium that is widely used in the food industry and is therefore desirable as a candidate for the production and secretion of recombinant proteins. Previously, we generated a L. lactis strain that expressed and secreted the antimicrobial cell wall-lytic enzyme lysostaphin. To identify lactococcal gene products that affect the production of lysostaphin, we isolated and characterized mutants generated by random transposon mutagenesis that had altered lysostaphin activity. Out of 35,000 mutants screened, only one with no lysostaphin activity was identified, and it was found to contain an insertion in the lysostaphin expression cassette. Ten mutants with higher lysostaphin activity contained insertions in only four different genes, which encode an uncharacterized putative transmembrane protein (llmg_0609) (three mutants), an enzyme catalyzing the first step in peptidoglycan biosynthesis (murA2) (five mutants), a putative regulator of peptidoglycan modification (trmA) (one mutant), and an uncharacterized enzyme possibly involved in ubiquinone biosynthesis (llmg_2148) (one mutant). These mutants were found to secrete larger amounts of lysostaphin than the control strain (MG1363[lss]), and the greatest increase in secretion was 9.8- to 16.1-fold, for the llmg_0609 mutants. The lysostaphin-oversecreting llmg_0609, murA2, and trmA mutants were also found to secrete larger amounts of another cell wall-lytic enzyme (the Listeria monocytogenes bacteriophage endolysin Ply511) than the control strain, indicating that the phenotype is not limited to lysostaphin.

Display of heterologous proteins on the surface of Lactococcus lactis using the H and W domain of PrtB from Lactobacillus delburueckii subsp. bulgaricus as an anchoring matrix

AIMS

The aim of this study was to develop a cell-surface display system for foreign antigens on the surface of a Lactococcus lactis strain using an H and W domain of PrtB from Lactobacillus delburueckii subsp. bulgaricus as an anchoring matrix.

METHODS AND RESULTS

To construct a cell-surface display pACL1 vector, a derivative of pSECE1 vector, we amplified the H and W domain of the cell-surface proteinase Prt B from Lact. bulgaricus using specific primers and then cloned it into a site downstream of the secretion signal sequence in the pSECE1 vector. The new system, designed for cell-surface display of recombinant proteins on L. lactis, was evaluated by the expression and display of the FliC protein of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis as a reporter gene (pALC1:FliC). The expression of the FliC protein by the transformed cells was analysed by Western blot analysis, and the localization of FliC on the cell surface was confirmed by immunofluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry analysis. A specific band corresponding in size (approx. 110 kDa) to FliC plus the anchor residues was detected by anti-FliC antibody in the cell extract of L. lactis H61 harbouring pALC1:FliC, but not L. lactis H61 harbouring pALC1. In addition, flow cytometry and immunofluorescence microscopy revealed FliC-specific positive signals and a significant increase of fluorescence, respectively, in cells harbouring pALC1:FliC compared with that in control cells harbouring the parental pALC1 plasmid. These findings demonstrated that FliC was successfully displayed on the cell surface by the anchor domain of PrtB.

CONCLUSIONS

A pALC1 vector using the H and W domain of PrtB from Lact. bulgaricus as an anchoring matrix can be used to successfully display the FliC protein on the surface of L. lactis.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

This novel way of displaying heterologous proteins on the cell surface of L. lactis using the PrtB anchor domain should prove useful for the delivery of antigens and other proteins.

The group B streptococcal alpha C protein binds alpha1beta1-integrin through a novel KTD motif that promotes internalization of GBS within human epithelial cells

Group B Streptococcus (GBS) is the leading cause of bacterial pneumonia, sepsis and meningitis among neonates and a cause of morbidity among pregnant women and immunocompromised adults. GBS epithelial cell invasion is associated with expression of alpha C protein (ACP). Loss of ACP expression results in a decrease in GBS internalization and translocation across human cervical epithelial cells (ME180). Soluble ACP and its 170 amino acid N-terminal region (NtACP), but not the repeat protein RR', bind to ME180 cells and reduce internalization of wild-type GBS to levels obtained with an ACP-deficient isogenic mutant. In the current study, ACP colocalized with alpha(1)beta(1)-integrin, resulting in integrin clustering as determined by laser scanning confocal microscopy. NtACP contains two structural domains, D1 and D2. D1 is structurally similar to fibronectin's integrin-binding region (FnIII10). D1's (KT)D146 motif is structurally similar to the FnIII10 (RG)D1495 integrin-binding motif, suggesting that ACP binds alpha(1)beta(1)-integrin via the D1 domain. The (KT)D146A mutation within soluble NtACP reduced its ability to bind alpha(1)beta(1)-integrin and inhibit GBS internalization within ME180 cells. Thus ACP binding to human epithelial cell integrins appears to contribute to GBS internalization within epithelial cells.

Antimicrobial activity of lysostaphin and a Listeria monocytogenes bacteriophage endolysin produced and secreted by lactic acid bacteria

The expression and secretion signals of the Sep protein from Lactobacillus fermentum BR11 were used to direct export of two peptidoglycan hydrolases by Lb. fermentum BR11, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, Lactobacillus plantarum ATCC 14917 and Lactococcus lactis MG1363. The production levels, hydrolytic and bacteriocidal activities of the Listeria monocytogenes bacteriophage N-acetylmuramoyl-l-alanine amidase endolysin Ply511 and the glycylglycine endopeptidase lysostaphin were examined. Buffering of the growth media to a neutral pH allowed detection of Ply511 and lysostaphin peptidoglycan hydrolytic activity from all lactic acid bacteria. It was found that purified Ply511 has a pH activity range similar to that of lysostaphin with both enzymes functioning optimally under alkaline conditions. Supernatants from lactobacilli expressing lysostaphin reduced viability of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) by approximately 8 log(10) CFU/ml compared to controls. However, supernatants containing Ply511 were unable to control L. monocytogenes growth. In coculture experiments, both Lb. plantarum and Lb. fermentum synthesizing lysostaphin were able to effectively reduce MRSA cell numbers by >7.4 and 1.7 log(10)CFU/ml, respectively, while lactic acid bacteria secreting Ply511 were unable to significantly inhibit the growth of L. monocytogenes. Our results demonstrate that lysostaphin and Ply511 can be expressed in an active form from different lactic acid bacteria and lysostaphin showed superior killing activity. Lactobacilli producing lysostaphin may have potential for in situ biopreservation in foodstuffs or for prevention of S. aureus infections.

Inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus growth on tellurite-containing media by Lactobacillus reuteri Is dependent on CyuC and thiol production

Lactobacillus reuteri inhibits Staphylococcus aureus growth on Baird-Parker agar. This activity required the presence of tellurite and was not shared with other lactic acid bacteria or an L. reuteri mutant defective in cystine metabolism. Secreted products generated from L. reuteri cystine metabolism and thiols were shown to augment tellurite toxicity.

Genome-based identification and characterization of a putative mucin-binding protein from the surface of Streptococcus pneumoniae

Streptococcus pneumoniae open reading frame SP1492 encodes a surface protein that contains a novel conserved domain similar to the repeated fragments of mucin-binding proteins from lactobacilli and lactococci. To investigate the functional role(s) of this protein and its potential adhesive properties, the surface-exposed region of SP1492 was expressed in Escherichia coli, purified to homogeneity, and partially characterized by biophysical and immunological methods. Circular dichroism and sedimentation measurements confirmed that SP1492 is an all-beta protein that exists in solution as a monomer. The SP1492 protein has been shown to be expressed by S. pneumoniae and was experimentally localized to its surface. The protein functional domain binds to mucins II and III from porcine stomach and to purified submaxillary bovine gland mucin. It appears to be one of the very few unambiguous pneumococcal adhesin molecules known to date. A hypothetical model constructed by ab initio techniques predicts a novel beta-sandwich protein structure.

Selective enrichment media affect the antibody-based detection of stress-exposed Listeria monocytogenes due to differential expression of antibody-reactive antigens identified by protein sequencing

Selective enrichment broths are frequently used to recover stressed Listeria cells to detectable levels, but the ability of antibodies to detect these cells from various commonly used enrichment media is unknown. In this study, a polyclonal (PAb) and monoclonal (MAb) antibody were used to examine the variation in antigen expression on healthy or stress-recovered Listeria monocytogenes cells grown in brain heart infusion broth, buffered Listeria enrichment broth (BLEB), Listeria repair broth (LRB), University of Vermont medium (UVM), and Fraser broth (FB) for immunodetection. Indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) data showed that L. monocytogenes subjected to stresses (acid, cold, heat, and salt) and then grown in BLEB gave the highest reaction with the anti-Listeria PAb while those grown in LRB gave the highest reaction with the MAb C11E9. Cells grown in UVM and FB gave poor ELISA values with both antibodies. Western blotting with PAb revealed differential expression of surface proteins of 62, 58, 50, 43, and 30 kDa on L. monocytogenes cells, with most proteins displaying elevated expression in BLEB and LRB but reduced or no expression in UVM or FB. Similar differential expressions were noticed for C11E9. PAb-reactive proteins were identified as putative LPXTG-motif cell-wall anchor-domain protein (62 kDa; lmo0610), flavocytochrome C fumarate reductase chain A homolog protein (58 kDa; lmo0355), enolase (50 kDa; lmo2455), glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (43 kDa; lmo2459), and hypothetical phospho-sugar binding protein (30 kDa; lmo0041), respectively, and the MAb-reactive 66-kDa protein was confirmed to be N-acetylmuramidase (lmo2691). In conclusion, BLEB and LRB favorably supported increased expression of antigens and proved to be superior to UVM and FB for immunodetection of stressed L. monocytogenes cells.

Activity of HIV entry and fusion inhibitors expressed by the human vaginal colonizing probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri RC-14

Novel therapeutic approaches are needed to combat the rapid increase in HIV sexual transmission in women. The probiotic organism Lactobacillus reuteri RC-14 which safely colonizes the human vagina and prevents microbial infections, has been genetically modified to produce anti-HIV proteins which were capable of blocking the three main steps of HIV entry into human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. The HIV entry or fusion inhibitors were fused to the native expression and secretion signals of BspA, Mlp or Sep in L. reuteri RC-14 and the expression cassettes were stably inserted into the chromosome. L. reuteri RC-14 expressed the HIV inhibitors in cell wall-associated and secreted forms. L. reuteri RC-14 expressing CD4D1D2-antibody-like fusion proteins were able to bind single or dual tropic coreceptor-using HIV-1 primary isolates. This is the first study to show that a well-documented and proven human vaginal probiotic strain can express potent functional viral inhibitors, which may potentially lower the sexual transmission of HIV.

Display of alpha-amylase on the surface of Lactobacillus casei cells by use of the PgsA anchor protein, and production of lactic acid from starch

We developed a new cell surface engineering system based on the PgsA anchor protein from Bacillus subtilis. In this system, the N terminus of the target protein was fused to the PgsA protein and the resulting fusion protein was expressed on the cell surface. Using this new system, we constructed a novel starch-degrading strain of Lactobacillus casei by genetically displaying alpha-amylase from the Streptococcus bovis strain 148 with a FLAG peptide tag (AmyAF). Localization of the PgsA-AmyA-FLAG fusion protein on the cell surface was confirmed by immunofluorescence microscopy and flow cytometric analysis. The lactic acid bacteria which displayed AmyAF showed significantly elevated hydrolytic activity toward soluble starch. By fermentation using AmyAF-displaying L. casei cells, 50 g/liter of soluble starch was reduced to 13.7 g/liter, and 21.8 g/liter of lactic acid was produced within about 24 h. The yield in terms of grams of lactic acid produced per gram of carbohydrate utilized was 0.60 g per g of carbohydrate consumed at 24 h. Since AmyA was immobilized on the cells, cells were recovered after fermentation and used repeatedly. During repeated utilization of cells, the lactic acid yield was improved to 0.81 g per g of carbohydrate consumed at 72 h. These results indicate that efficient simultaneous saccharification and fermentation from soluble starch to lactic acid were carried out by recombinant L. casei cells with cell surface display of AmyA.

Functional analysis of putative adhesion factors in Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM

Lactobacilli are major inhabitants of the normal microflora of the gastrointestinal tract, and some select species have been used extensively as probiotic cultures. One potentially important property of these organisms is their ability to interact with epithelial cells in the intestinal tract, which may promote retention and host-bacterial communication. However, the mechanisms by which they attach to intestinal epithelial cells are unknown. The objective of this study was to investigate cell surface proteins in Lactobacillus acidophilus that may promote attachment to intestinal tissues. Using genome sequence data, predicted open reading frames were searched against known protein and protein motif databases to identify four proteins potentially involved in adhesion to epithelial cells. Homologous recombination was used to construct isogenic mutations in genes encoding a mucin-binding protein, a fibronectin-binding protein, a surface layer protein, and two streptococcal R28 homologs. The abilities of the mutants to adhere to intestinal epithelial cells were then evaluated in vitro. Each strain was screened on Caco-2 cells, which differentiate and express markers characteristic of normal small-intestine cells. A significant decrease in adhesion was observed in the fibronectin-binding protein mutant (76%) and the mucin-binding protein mutant (65%). A surface layer protein mutant also showed reduction in adhesion ability (84%), but the effect of this mutation is likely due to the loss of multiple surface proteins that may be embedded in the S-layer. This study demonstrated that multiple cell surface proteins in L. acidophilus NCFM can individually contribute to the organism's ability to attach to intestinal cells in vitro.

Biodiversity-based identification and functional characterization of the mannose-specific adhesin of Lactobacillus plantarum

Lactobacillus plantarum is a frequently encountered inhabitant of the human intestinal tract, and some strains are marketed as probiotics. Their ability to adhere to mannose residues is a potentially interesting characteristic with regard to proposed probiotic features such as colonization of the intestinal surface and competitive exclusion of pathogens. In this study, the variable capacity of 14 L. plantarum strains to agglutinate Saccharomyces cerevisiae in a mannose-specific manner was determined and subsequently correlated with an L. plantarum WCFS1-based genome-wide genotype database. This led to the identification of four candidate mannose adhesin-encoding genes. Two genes primarily predicted to code for sortase-dependent cell surface proteins displayed a complete gene-trait match. Their involvement in mannose adhesion was corroborated by the finding that a sortase (srtA) mutant of L. plantarum WCFS1 lost the capacity to agglutinate S. cerevisiae. The postulated role of these two candidate genes was investigated by gene-specific deletion and overexpression in L. plantarum WCFS1. Subsequent evaluation of the mannose adhesion capacity of the resulting mutant strains showed that inactivation of one candidate gene (lp_0373) did not affect mannose adhesion properties. In contrast, deletion of the other gene (lp_1229) resulted in a complete loss of yeast agglutination ability, while its overexpression quantitatively enhanced this phenotype. Therefore, this gene was designated to encode the mannose-specific adhesin (Msa; gene name, msa) of L. plantarum. Domain homology analysis of the predicted 1,000-residue Msa protein identified known carbohydrate-binding domains, further supporting its role as a mannose adhesin that is likely to be involved in the interaction of L. plantarum with its host in the intestinal tract.

A high-molecular-mass surface protein (Lsp) and methionine sulfoxide reductase B (MsrB) contribute to the ecological performance of Lactobacillus reuteri in the murine gut

Members of the genus Lactobacillus are common inhabitants of the gut, yet little is known about the traits that contribute to their ecological performance in gastrointestinal ecosystems. Lactobacillus reuteri 100-23 persists in the gut of the reconstituted Lactobacillus-free mouse after a single oral inoculation. Recently, three genes of this strain that were specifically induced (in vivo induced) in the murine gut were identified (38). We report here the detection of a gene of L. reuteri 100-23 that encodes a high-molecular-mass surface protein (Lsp) that shows homology to proteins involved in the adherence of other bacteria to epithelial cells and in biofilm formation. The three in vivo-induced genes and lsp of L. reuteri 100-23 were inactivated by insertional mutagenesis in order to study their biological importance in the murine gastrointestinal tract. Competition experiments showed that mutation of lsp and a gene encoding methionine sulfoxide reductase (MsrB) reduced ecological performance. Mutation of lsp impaired the adherence of the bacteria to the epithelium of the mouse forestomach and altered colonization dynamics. Homologues of lsp and msrB are present in the genomes of several strains of Lactobacillus and may play an important role in the maintenance of these bacteria in gut ecosystems.

Surface proteins of Streptococcus agalactiae and related proteins in other bacterial pathogens

Streptococcus agalactiae (group B Streptococcus) is the major cause of invasive bacterial disease, including meningitis, in the neonatal period. Although prophylactic measures have contributed to a substantial reduction in the number of infections, development of a vaccine remains an important goal. While much work in this field has focused on the S. agalactiae polysaccharide capsule, which is an important virulence factor that elicits protective immunity, surface proteins have received increasing attention as potential virulence factors and vaccine components. Here, we summarize current knowledge about S. agalactiae surface proteins, with emphasis on proteins that have been characterized immunochemically and/or elicit protective immunity in animal models. These surface proteins have been implicated in interactions with human epithelial cells, binding to extracellular matrix components, and/or evasion of host immunity. Of note, several S. agalactiae surface proteins are related to surface proteins identified in other bacterial pathogens, emphasizing the general interest of the S. agalactiae proteins. Because some S. agalactiae surface proteins elicit protective immunity, they hold promise as components in a vaccine based only on proteins or as carriers in polysaccharide conjugate vaccines.

Identification and characterization of the novel LysM domain-containing surface protein Sep from Lactobacillus fermentum BR11 and its use as a peptide fusion partner in Lactobacillus and Lactococcus

Examination of supernatant fractions from broth cultures of Lactobacillus fermentum BR11 revealed the presence of a number of proteins, including a 27-kDa protein termed Sep. The amino-terminal sequence of Sep was determined, and the gene encoding it was cloned and sequenced. Sep is a 205-amino-acid protein and contains a 30-amino-acid secretion signal and has overall homology (between 39 and 92% identity) with similarly sized proteins of Lactobacillus reuteri, Enterococcus faecium, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus agalactiae, and Lactobacillus plantarum. The carboxy-terminal 81 amino acids of Sep also have strong homology (86% identity) to the carboxy termini of the aggregation-promoting factor (APF) surface proteins of Lactobacillus gasseri and Lactobacillus johnsonii. The mature amino terminus of Sep contains a putative peptidoglycan-binding LysM domain, thereby making it distinct from APF proteins. We have identified a common motif within LysM domains that is shared with carbohydrate binding YG motifs which are found in streptococcal glucan-binding proteins and glucosyltransferases. Sep was investigated as a heterologous peptide expression vector in L. fermentum, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and Lactococcus lactis MG1363. Modified Sep containing an amino-terminal six-histidine epitope was found associated with the cells but was largely present in the supernatant in the L. fermentum, L. rhamnosus, and L. lactis hosts. Sep as well as the previously described surface protein BspA were used to express and secrete in L. fermentum or L. rhamnosus a fragment of human E-cadherin, which contains the receptor region for Listeria monocytogenes. This study demonstrates that Sep has potential for heterologous protein expression and export in lactic acid bacteria.