Antibody responses to natural rattlesnake envenomation and a rattlesnake toxoid vaccine in horses

Snake Envenomation

Snakebite envenomation (SBE) in horses can have devastating outcomes. Tissue damage, cardiotoxicity, coagulopathy, and neurotoxicity can be concerns with SBE. Understanding the actions of venom components is important in developing a successful treatment plan. Antivenom is the mainstay of treatment. Long-term deleterious effects can occur including cardiac dysfunction and lameness.

Immunological Responses to Envenomation

Venoms are complex mixtures of toxic compounds delivered by bite or sting. In humans, the consequences of envenomation range from self-limiting to lethal. Critical host defence against envenomation comprises innate and adaptive immune strategies targeted towards venom detection, neutralisation, detoxification, and symptom resolution. In some instances, venoms mediate immune dysregulation that contributes to symptom severity. This review details the involvement of immune cell subtypes and mediators, particularly of the dermis, in host resistance and venom-induced immunopathology. We further discuss established venom-associated immunopathology, including allergy and systemic inflammation, and investigate Irukandji syndrome as a potential systemic inflammatory response. Finally, this review characterises venom-derived compounds as a source of immune modulating drugs for treatment of disease.

Suspected anaphylaxis and lack of clinical protection associated with envenomation in two dogs previously vaccinated with Crotalus atrox toxoid

OBJECTIVE

to describe the clinical presentation of two canines present in anaphylactic shock secondary to rattlesnake envenomation. In both cases, there was no previous documented previous envenomation event and the initial sensitization required for anaphylactic response is believed to be secondary to Crotalus atrox toxoid vaccine.

CASE DESCRIPTION

In the first case, a 12-year-old golden retriever present for collapse, severe hematochezia, and vomiting after first time envenomation from a suspected western diamondback rattlesnake. The patient presented in severe hypovolemic shock and required aggressive fluid therapy, antivenom, anti-emetics, and pain management. The patient made a full recovery within 24 hours. In the second case, an 8-year old English setter presented for acute collapse, vomiting, and facial swelling after suspected first time envenomation from a suspected Prairie rattlesnake. The patient presented in severe hypovolemic shock with cardiac arrhythmias and required aggressive fluid therapy, antivenom, pain control, anti-emetics, and antibiotics. The patient made a full recovery after three days of hospitalization. Both patients had been previously vaccinated with the C. atrox vaccine.

CONCLUSION

This case report documents suspected anaphylaxis in two canine patients after first time envenomation by a rattlesnake. Both patients were previously vaccinated by the Crotalus atrox toxoid, which is hypothesized to be the initial inciting trigger.

Plasma proteome of buffaloes

The proteomic approach has aroused the interest of veterinary medicine researchers, especially regarding the production of biopharmaceuticals and diagnosis of diseases in farm animals. Water buffaloes have gained prominence in the world economy due to the quality of their milk, meat, and leather, in addition to being an important donor of blood components. This work aimed to identify and characterize the proteins present in the blood plasma of Murrah buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) through 2D electrophoresis, in gel protein digestion followed by mass spectrometry technique and for albumin depletion, in solution protein digestion followed by shotgun analysis. Our results showed the identification of 112 protein spots and 35 individual proteins, respectively. The abundant proteins were represented by albumin, fibrinogen-α, fibrinogen-β, fibrinogen-γ, immunoglobulins in general, α-1-antiproteinase, α-1B-glycoprotein, α-2-HS-glycoprotein, α-macroglobulin, apolipoprotein A1, antithrombin-III, endopin 2B, fetuin-B, retinol-binding protein, serotransferrin, transthyretin and vitamin D-binding protein. Most of these proteins are related to the signaling pathways of the complement system and coagulation cascade. The results allowed a better understanding of the protein composition of these blood components, thus promoting studies on animal health in the search for molecular markers of zoonotic diseases in buffaloes.

Active immunization of cattle with a bothropic toxoid does not abrogate envenomation by Bothrops asper venom, but increases the likelihood of survival

This study assessed the protective effect of active immunization of cattle to prevent the envenomation induced by B. asper venom. Two groups of oxen were immunized with a bothropic toxoid and challenged by an intramuscular injection of either 10 or 50 mg B. asper venom, to induce moderate or severe envenomations, respectively. Non-immunized oxen were used as controls. It was found that immunized oxen developed local edema similar to those observed in non-immunized animals. However, systemic effects were totally prevented in immunized oxen challenged with 10 mg venom, and therefore antivenom treatment was not required. When immunized oxen were challenged with 50 mg venom, coagulopathy was manifested 3-16 h later than in non-immunized oxen, demonstrating a delay in the onset of systemic envenomation. In these animals, active immunization did not eliminate the need for antivenom treatment, but increased the time lapse in which antivenom administration is still effective. All experimentally envenomed oxen completely recovered after a week following venom injection. Our results suggest that immunization of cattle with a bothropic toxoid prevents the development of systemic effects in moderate envenomations by B. asper, but does not abrogate these effects in severe envenomation.

Bothrops asper envenoming in cattle: Clinical features and management using equine-derived whole IgG antivenom

Snakebite envenoming is an important problem in the livestock industry in Costa Rica. Of the 22 species of venomous snakes in the country, Bothrops asper is involved in most animal envenomings. Envenomation is typically characterised by swelling and bleeding at the bite site, coagulopathy, systemic haemorrhage, and, in some cases, death. The aims of the present study were to describe the clinical manifestations of B. asper envenomation in cattle and to evaluate the treatment efficacy of antivenom administration. The clinical effects of naturally occurring envenomation were reproduced experimentally in cattle by giving an intramuscular injection of either 10 mg or 50 mg venom to replicate mild and severe envenomings, respectively. Intravenous antivenom given 6 h after experimental venom injection controlled the symptoms; a dose of 120 mL was found to be appropriate for moderate and 200 mL for severe naturally occurring envenomings. Although administration of antivenom within the first 6 h following a snakebite prevented systemic effects, it did not reduce the extent of swelling at the bite site. Delayed administration of antivenom was not effective in saving naturally envenomed animals. The results indicate that, when promptly administered, antivenom constitutes an effective treatment for B. asper snakebite envenomation in cattle.

272 cases of rattlesnake envenomation in dogs: Demographics and treatment including safety of F(ab')2 antivenom use in 236 patients

Medical records of 272 rattlesnake envenomations of canines from 5 veterinary emergency centers in Maricopa County, Arizona between 2010 and 2012 were investigated. The objectives were to examine the patient demographics, severity of clinical signs, and treatment modalities employed, in order to discuss the outcomes of certain therapies including glucocorticoid use, antibiotic use, rattlesnake vaccination, and safety of antivenom administration in dogs. Evaluation was performed to model each response (survival, proposed canine snakebite severity score (cSSS), and length of stay) as a function of multiple variables. Of the 272 bite incidences, 8 dogs had a fatal outcome. In dogs older than 10 years, there was a greater likelihood of fatal outcome associated with a longer delay between the bite and presentation. 236 of the envenomated patients were treated with a F(ab')2 antivenom, 24 with a whole immunoglobulin antivenom, and 12 with both products. Overall incidence of acute hypersensitivity reaction was 0.7% with one incident observed in each antivenom group and F(ab')2 antivenom administration having the lowest rate of acute hypersensitivity reactions; no reactions were life-threatening. Antivenom administration was found to be generally safe in treatment of canine rattlesnake envenomation. In view of the results of this study, in dogs with rattlesnake envenomation, there is no evidence that use of glucocorticoids, diphenhydramine, prophylactic antibiotics, or vaccination lessen morbidity or mortality.