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Mammalian animal models for dengue virus infection: a recent overview. Arch Virol 2021; 167:31-44. [PMID: 34761286 PMCID: PMC8579898 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-021-05298-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Dengue, a rapidly spreading mosquito-borne human viral disease caused by dengue virus (DENV), is a public health concern in tropical and subtropical areas due to its expanding geographical range. DENV can cause a wide spectrum of illnesses in humans, ranging from asymptomatic infection or mild dengue fever (DF) to life-threatening dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shock syndrome (DSS). Dengue is caused by four DENV serotypes; however, dengue pathogenesis is complex and poorly understood. Establishing a useful animal model that can exhibit dengue-fever-like signs similar to those in humans is essential to improve our understanding of the host response and pathogenesis of DENV. Although several animal models, including mouse models, non-human primate models, and a recently reported tree shrew model, have been investigated for DENV infection, animal models with clinical signs that are similar to those of DF in humans have not yet been established. Although animal models are essential for understanding the pathogenesis of DENV infection and for drug and vaccine development, each animal model has its own strengths and limitations. Therefore, in this review, we provide a recent overview of animal models for DENV infection and pathogenesis, focusing on studies of the antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) effect in animal models.
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Transcriptomics Reveal Antiviral Gene Induction in the Egyptian Rousette Bat Is Antagonized In Vitro by Marburg Virus Infection. Viruses 2018; 10:v10110607. [PMID: 30400182 PMCID: PMC6266330 DOI: 10.3390/v10110607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Revised: 10/29/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The Egyptian rousette bat (ERB) is the only known Marburg virus (MARV) reservoir host. ERBs develop a productive MARV infection with low viremia and shedding but no overt disease, suggesting this virus is efficiently controlled by ERB antiviral responses. This dynamic would contrast with humans, where MARV-mediated interferon (IFN) antagonism early in infection is thought to contribute to the severe, often fatal disease. The newly-annotated ERB genome and transcriptome have now enabled us to use a custom-designed NanoString nCounter ERB CodeSet in conjunction with RNA-seq to investigate responses in a MARV-infected ERB cell line. Both transcriptomic platforms correlated well and showed that MARV inhibited the antiviral program in ERB cells, while an IFN antagonism-impaired MARV was less efficient at suppressing the response gene induction, phenotypes previously reported for primate cells. Interestingly, and despite the expansion of IFN loci in the ERB genome, neither MARV showed specific induction of almost any IFN gene. However, we detected an upregulation of putative, unannotated ERB antiviral paralogs, as well as an elevated basal expression in uninfected ERB cells of key antiviral genes.
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Borges MB, Marchevsky RS, Mendes YS, Mendes LG, Duarte AC, Cruz M, de Filippis AMB, Vasconcelos PFC, Freire M, Homma A, Mossman S, Lepine E, Vanloubbeeck Y, Lorin C, Malice MP, Caride E, Warter L. Characterization of recent and minimally passaged Brazilian dengue viruses inducing robust infection in rhesus macaques. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0196311. [PMID: 29694440 PMCID: PMC5919018 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0196311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The macaque is widely accepted as a suitable model for preclinical characterization of dengue vaccine candidates. However, the only vaccine for which both preclinical and clinical efficacy results were reported so far showed efficacy levels that were substantially different between macaques and humans. We hypothesized that this model’s predictive capacity may be improved using recent and minimally passaged dengue virus isolates, and by assessing vaccine efficacy by characterizing not only the post-dengue virus challenge viremia/RNAemia but also the associated-cytokine profile. Ten recent and minimally passaged Brazilian clinical isolates from the four dengue virus serotypes were tested for their infectivity in rhesus macaques. For the strains showing robust replication capacity, the associated-changes in soluble mediator levels, and the elicited dengue virus-neutralizing antibody responses, were also characterized. Three isolates from dengue virus serotypes 1, 2 and 4 induced viremia of high magnitude and longer duration relative to previously reported viremia kinetics in this model, and robust dengue virus-neutralizing antibody responses. Consistent with observations in humans, increased MCP-1, IFN-γ and VEGF-A levels, and transiently decreased IL-8 levels were detected after infection with the selected isolates. These results may contribute to establishing a dengue macaque model showing a higher predictability for vaccine efficacy in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Michael Cruz
- GSK, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Edith Lepine
- GSK, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
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4
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Experimental in vitro and in vivo systems for studying the innate immune response during dengue virus infections. Arch Virol 2018. [PMID: 29520688 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-018-3784-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Dengue is the most prevalent arboviral disease in humans and leads to significant morbidity and socioeconomic burden in tropical and subtropical areas. Dengue is caused by infection with any of the four closely related serotypes of dengue virus (DENV1-4) and usually manifests as a mild febrile illness, but may develop into fatal dengue hemorrhagic fever and shock syndrome. There are no specific antiviral therapies against dengue because understanding of DENV biology is limited. A tetravalent chimeric dengue vaccine, Dengvaxia, has finally been licensed for use, but its efficacy was significantly lower against DENV-2 infections and in dengue-naïve individuals. The identification of mechanisms underlying the interactions between DENV and immune responses will help to determine efficient therapeutic and preventive options. It has been well established how the innate immune system responds to DENV infection and how DENV overcomes innate antiviral defenses, however further progress in this field remains hampered by the absence of appropriate experimental dengue models. Herein, we review the available in vitro and in vivo approaches to study the innate immune responses to DENV.
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Hu Y, Hu Y, Sun L, Wong J, Wang M. Antiviral effects of liposome-encapsulated PolyICLC against Dengue virus in a mouse model. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2016; 478:913-8. [PMID: 27524246 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2016.08.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Revised: 04/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This study presents the first investigation of the antiviral effects of the liposome-encapsulated PolyICLC (LE-PolyICLC) on Dengue virus (DENV) in a mouse model. In vivo efficacy studies showed that LE-PolyICLC acted to increase antiviral mechanisms mainly through promoting cytokine expression associated with innate immunity, such as IFN-γ. In addition, the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α was also increased, while IL-6 level was decreased in serum. The titers of total antibodies against DENV2 in mice were also elevated. Administration of LE-PolyICLC not only alleviated the loss of body weight, degree of morbidity, and pathological damage in brains, but also reduced the viral titers and expression of viral E protein in the brain. Notably, the effectiveness of LE-PolyICLC was better than PolyICLC on the basis of the data presented in this study. These results, therefore, set a foundation for further development of LE-PolyICLC as an attractive candidate of antiviral agents to be used in both prophylactic and therapeutic settings in DENV diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongxin Hu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yanxin Hu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Lunquan Sun
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China.
| | - Jonathan Wong
- Biotechnology, DRDC, Box 4000, Station Main, Medicine Hat, Alta T1A 8K6, Canada.
| | - Ming Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; Key Laboratory of Veterinary Bioproduction and Chemical Medicine of the Minstry of Agriculture, Zhongmu Institutes of China Animal Husbandry Industry Co., Ltd, No. 156 Beiqing Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100095, China.
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Castillo Ramirez JA, Urcuqui-Inchima S. Dengue Virus Control of Type I IFN Responses: A History of Manipulation and Control. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2015; 35:421-30. [PMID: 25629430 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2014.0129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The arthropod-borne diseases caused by dengue virus (DENV) are a major and emerging problem of public health worldwide. Infection with DENV causes a series of clinical manifestations ranging from mild flu syndrome to severe diseases that include hemorrhage and shock. It has been demonstrated that the innate immune response plays a key role in DENV pathogenesis. However, in recent years, it was shown that DENV evades the innate immune response by blocking type I interferon (IFN-I). It has been demonstrated that DENV can inhibit both the production and the signaling of IFN-I. The viral proteins, NS2A and NS3, inhibit IFN-I production by degrading cellular signaling molecules. In addition, the viral proteins, NS2A, NS4A, NS4B, and NS5, can inhibit IFN-I signaling by blocking the phosphorylation of the STAT1 and STAT2 molecules. Finally, NS5 mediates the degradation of STAT2 using the proteasome machinery. In this study, we briefly review the most recent insights regarding the IFN-I response to DENV infection and its implication for pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Silvio Urcuqui-Inchima
- Grupo Inmunovirología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Antioquia UdeA , Medellín, Colombia
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Zhao B, Shang G, Chen J, Geng X, Ye X, Xu G, Wang J, Zheng J, Li H, Akbary F, Li S, Lu J, Ling F, Ji X. A more consistent intraluminal rhesus monkey model of ischemic stroke. Neural Regen Res 2014; 9:2087-94. [PMID: 25657726 PMCID: PMC4316474 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.147936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Endovascular surgery is advantageous in experimentally induced ischemic stroke because it causes fewer cranial traumatic lesions than invasive surgery and can closely mimic the pathophysiology in stroke patients. However, the outcomes are highly variable, which limits the accuracy of evaluations of ischemic stroke studies. In this study, eight healthy adult rhesus monkeys were randomized into two groups with four monkeys in each group: middle cerebral artery occlusion at origin segment (M1) and middle cerebral artery occlusion at M2 segment. The blood flow in the middle cerebral artery was blocked completely for 2 hours using the endovascular microcoil placement technique (1 mm × 10 cm) (undetachable), to establish a model of cerebral ischemia. The microcoil was withdrawn and the middle cerebral artery blood flow was restored. A reversible middle cerebral artery occlusion model was identified by hematoxylin-eosin staining, digital subtraction angiography, magnetic resonance angiography, magnetic resonance imaging, and neurological evaluation. The results showed that the middle cerebral artery occlusion model was successfully established in eight adult healthy rhesus monkeys, and ischemic lesions were apparent in the brain tissue of rhesus monkeys at 24 hours after occlusion. The rhesus monkeys had symptoms of neurological deficits. Compared with the M1 occlusion group, the M2 occlusion group had lower infarction volume and higher neurological scores. These experimental findings indicate that reversible middle cerebral artery occlusion can be produced with the endovascular microcoil technique in rhesus monkeys. The M2 occluded model had less infarction and less neurological impairment, which offers the potential for application in the field of brain injury research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Zhao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Guowei Shang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Jian Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaokun Geng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xin Ye
- Department of Anesthesiology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Guoxun Xu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Ju Wang
- Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Jiasheng Zheng
- Radiology Department, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Hongjun Li
- Radiology Department, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Fauzia Akbary
- Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Shengli Li
- Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Lu
- Department of Laboratory Animal Science, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Feng Ling
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xunming Ji
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Center of Stroke, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China
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Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) is an emerging mosquito-borne human pathogen that affects millions of individuals each year by causing severe and potentially fatal syndromes. Despite intense research efforts, no approved vaccine or antiviral therapy is yet available. Overcoming this limitation requires detailed understanding of the intimate relationship between the virus and its host cell, providing the basis to devise optimal prophylactic and therapeutic treatment options. With the advent of novel high-throughput technologies including functional genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and lipidomics, new important insights into the DENV replication cycle and the interaction of this virus with its host cell have been obtained. In this chapter, we provide a comprehensive overview on the current status of the DENV research field, covering every step of the viral replication cycle with a particular focus on virus-host cell interaction. We will also review specific chemical inhibitors targeting cellular factors and processes of relevance for the DENV replication cycle and their possible exploitation for the development of next generation antivirals.
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Van der Zeijst BAM. Vaccines and global stability: achievements and challenges. Expert Rev Vaccines 2014; 7:1457-60. [DOI: 10.1586/14760584.7.10.1457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Clark KB, Onlamoon N, Hsiao HM, Perng GC, Villinger F. Can non-human primates serve as models for investigating dengue disease pathogenesis? Front Microbiol 2013; 4:305. [PMID: 24130557 PMCID: PMC3795305 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2013.00305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2013] [Accepted: 09/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue Virus (DV) infects between 50 and 100 million people globally, with public health costs totaling in the billions. It is the causative agent of dengue fever (DF) and dengue hemorrhagic fever/dengue shock syndrome (DHF/DSS), vector-borne diseases that initially predominated in the tropics. Due to the expansion of its mosquito vector, Aedes spp., DV is increasingly becoming a global problem. Infected individuals may present with a wide spectrum of symptoms, spanning from a mild febrile to a life-threatening illness, which may include thrombocytopenia, leucopenia, hepatomegaly, hemorrhaging, plasma leakage and shock. Deciphering the underlining mechanisms responsible for these symptoms has been hindered by the limited availability of animal models that can induce classic human pathology. Currently, several permissive non-human primate (NHP) species and mouse breeds susceptible to adapted DV strains are available. Though virus replication occurs in these animals, none of them recapitulate the cardinal features of human symptomatology, with disease only occasionally observed in NHPs. Recently our group established a DV serotype 2 intravenous infection model with the Indian rhesus macaque, which reliably produced cutaneous hemorrhages after primary virus exposure. Further manipulation of experimental parameters (virus strain, immune cell expansion, depletion, etc.) can refine this model and expand its relevance to human DF. Future goals include applying this model to elucidate the role of pre-existing immunity upon secondary infection and immunopathogenesis. Of note, virus titers in primates in vivo and in vitro, even with our model, have been consistently 1000-fold lower than those found in humans. We submit that an improved model, capable of demonstrating severe pathogenesis may only be achieved with higher virus loads. Nonetheless, our DV coagulopathy disease model is valuable for the study of select pathomechanisms and testing DV drug and vaccine candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina B Clark
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine Atlanta, GA, USA
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11
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Helbig KJ, Carr JM, Calvert JK, Wati S, Clarke JN, Eyre NS, Narayana SK, Fiches GN, McCartney EM, Beard MR. Viperin is induced following dengue virus type-2 (DENV-2) infection and has anti-viral actions requiring the C-terminal end of viperin. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013; 7:e2178. [PMID: 23638199 PMCID: PMC3630087 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2012] [Accepted: 03/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The host protein viperin is an interferon stimulated gene (ISG) that is up-regulated during a number of viral infections. In this study we have shown that dengue virus type-2 (DENV-2) infection significantly induced viperin, co-incident with production of viral RNA and via a mechanism requiring retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I). Viperin did not inhibit DENV-2 entry but DENV-2 RNA and infectious virus release was inhibited in viperin expressing cells. Conversely, DENV-2 replicated to higher tires earlier in viperin shRNA expressing cells. The anti-DENV effect of viperin was mediated by residues within the C-terminal 17 amino acids of viperin and did not require the N-terminal residues, including the helix domain, leucine zipper and S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) motifs known to be involved in viperin intracellular membrane association. Viperin showed co-localisation with lipid droplet markers, and was co-localised and interacted with DENV-2 capsid (CA), NS3 and viral RNA. The ability of viperin to interact with DENV-2 NS3 was associated with its anti-viral activity, while co-localisation of viperin with lipid droplets was not. Thus, DENV-2 infection induces viperin which has anti-viral properties residing in the C-terminal region of the protein that act to restrict early DENV-2 RNA production/accumulation, potentially via interaction of viperin with DENV-2 NS3 and replication complexes. These anti-DENV-2 actions of viperin show both contrasts and similarities with other described anti-viral mechanisms of viperin action and highlight the diverse nature of this unique anti-viral host protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karla J. Helbig
- School of Molecular and Biomedical Science, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Jillian M. Carr
- Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Flinders University, Bedford Park, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
- * E-mail:
| | - Julie K. Calvert
- Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Flinders University, Bedford Park, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Satiya Wati
- School of Molecular and Biomedical Science, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Jennifer N. Clarke
- Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Flinders University, Bedford Park, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Nicholas S. Eyre
- School of Molecular and Biomedical Science, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Sumudu K. Narayana
- School of Molecular and Biomedical Science, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Guillaume N. Fiches
- School of Molecular and Biomedical Science, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Erin M. McCartney
- School of Molecular and Biomedical Science, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Michael R. Beard
- School of Molecular and Biomedical Science, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
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12
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El-Awady AR, Lapp CA, Gamal AY, Sharawy MM, Wenger KH, Cutler CW, Messer RLW. Human periodontal ligament fibroblast responses to compression in chronic periodontitis. J Clin Periodontol 2013; 40:661-71. [DOI: 10.1111/jcpe.12100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/03/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed R. El-Awady
- Department of Periodontology; School of Dentistry; Al-Azhar University; Cairo Egypt
- Department of Oral Biology; Georgia Health Sciences University; Augusta GA USA
| | - Carol A. Lapp
- Department of Oral Biology; Georgia Health Sciences University; Augusta GA USA
| | - Ahmed Y. Gamal
- Department of Periodontology; School of Dentistry; Al-Azhar University; Cairo Egypt
| | - Mohamed M. Sharawy
- Department of Oral Biology; Georgia Health Sciences University; Augusta GA USA
| | - Karl H. Wenger
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery; Georgia Health Sciences University; Augusta GA USA
| | | | - Regina L. W. Messer
- Department of Oral Biology; Georgia Health Sciences University; Augusta GA USA
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13
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Rodriguez-Mercado R, Ford GD, Xu Z, Kraiselburd EN, Martinez MI, Eterović VA, Colon E, Rodriguez IV, Portilla P, Ferchmin PA, Gierbolini L, Rodriguez-Carrasquillo M, Powell MD, Pulliam JVK, McCraw CO, Gates A, Ford BD. Acute neuronal injury and blood genomic profiles in a nonhuman primate model for ischemic stroke. Comp Med 2012; 62:427-438. [PMID: 23114047 PMCID: PMC3472608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2011] [Revised: 01/05/2012] [Accepted: 03/25/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The goal of this study was to characterize acute neuronal injury in a novel nonhuman primate (NHP) ischemic stroke model by using multiple outcome measures. Silk sutures were inserted into the M1 segment of the middle cerebral artery of rhesus macaques to achieve permanent occlusion of the vessel. The sutures were introduced via the femoral artery by using endovascular microcatheterization techniques. Within hours after middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), infarction was detectable by using diffusion-weighted MRI imaging. The infarcts expanded by 24 h after MCAO and then were detectable on T2-weighted images. The infarcts seen by MRI were consistent with neuronal injury demonstrated histologically. Neurobehavioral function after MCAO was determined by using 2 neurologic testing scales. Neurologic assessments indicated that impairment after ischemia was limited to motor function in the contralateral arm; other neurologic and behavioral parameters were largely unaffected. We also used microarrays to examine gene expression profiles in peripheral blood mononuclear cells after MCAO-induced ischemia. Several genes were altered in a time-dependent manner after MCAO, suggesting that this ischemia model may be suitable for identifying blood biomarkers associated with the presence and severity of ischemia. This NHP stroke model likely will facilitate the elucidation of mechanisms associated with acute neuronal injury after ischemia. In addition, the ability to identify candidate blood biomarkers in NHP after ischemia may prompt the development of new strategies for the diagnosis and treatment of ischemic stroke in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gregory D Ford
- Department of Neurobiology, Neuroscience Institute, Morehouse School of Medicine
- Department of Biology, Morehouse College, and
| | - Zhenfeng Xu
- Department of Neurobiology, Neuroscience Institute, Morehouse School of Medicine
| | - Edmundo N Kraiselburd
- Departments of Unit of Comparative Medicine, Caribbean Primate Research Center, Animal Resources Center, University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - Melween I Martinez
- Departments of Unit of Comparative Medicine, Caribbean Primate Research Center, Animal Resources Center, University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | | | | | - Idia V Rodriguez
- Departments of Unit of Comparative Medicine, Caribbean Primate Research Center, Animal Resources Center, University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | | | - Pedro A Ferchmin
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Universidad Central del Caribe, Bayamon, Puerto Rico
| | - Lynette Gierbolini
- Departments of Unit of Comparative Medicine, Caribbean Primate Research Center, Animal Resources Center, University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - Maria Rodriguez-Carrasquillo
- Departments of Unit of Comparative Medicine, Caribbean Primate Research Center, Animal Resources Center, University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - Michael D Powell
- Department of Neurobiology, Neuroscience Institute, Morehouse School of Medicine
| | - John VK Pulliam
- Department of Neurobiology, Neuroscience Institute, Morehouse School of Medicine
- Department of Physiology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Casey O McCraw
- Department of Neurobiology, Neuroscience Institute, Morehouse School of Medicine
| | - Alicia Gates
- Department of Neurobiology, Neuroscience Institute, Morehouse School of Medicine
| | - Byron D Ford
- Departments of Unit of Comparative Medicine, Caribbean Primate Research Center, Animal Resources Center, University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences, San Juan, Puerto Rico
- Department of Neurobiology, Neuroscience Institute, Morehouse School of Medicine
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14
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Chang TH, Chen SR, Yu CY, Lin YS, Chen YS, Kubota T, Matsuoka M, Lin YL. Dengue virus serotype 2 blocks extracellular signal-regulated kinase and nuclear factor-κB activation to downregulate cytokine production. PLoS One 2012; 7:e41635. [PMID: 22927911 PMCID: PMC3425550 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0041635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2012] [Accepted: 06/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Dengue virus (DENV) infection is the most common mosquito-borne viral disease threatening human health around the world. Type I interferon (IFN) and cytokine production are crucial in the innate immune system. We previously reported that DENV serotype 2 (DENV-2) induced low levels of interferon regulatory factor 3 and NF-κB activation, thus leading to reduced production of IFN-β in the early phase of infection. Here, we determined whether DENV infection not only hampers type I IFN activation but also cytokine production triggered by Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling. Methodology/Principal Findings We used quantitative RT-PCR and found that only low levels of IFN-β and inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 10 (IL-10), IL-12 and tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) mRNA were detected in DENV-2–infected bone-marrow–derived dendritic cells. Furthermore, DENV-2 infection repressed cytokine production triggered by TLR signaling. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying this suppression event, we measured NF-κB activation by p65 nuclear translocation and luciferase reporter assay and found that NF-κB activation triggered by TLR ligands was blocked by DENV-2 infection. As well, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activity was suppressed by DENV-2 infection. Conclusions/Significance To downregulate the host innate immunity, DENV-2 by itself is a weak inducer of type I IFN and cytokines, furthermore DENV-2 can also block the TLR-triggered ERK–NF-κB activation and cytokine production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsung-Hsien Chang
- Department of Medical Education and Research, Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- * E-mail: (THC); (YLL)
| | - Siang-Ru Chen
- Department of Medical Education and Research, Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Yi Yu
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - You-Sheng Lin
- Department of Medical Education and Research, Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Yao-Shen Chen
- Section of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Section of Microbiology, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Toru Kubota
- Department of Virology III, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mayumi Matsuoka
- Department of Bacteriology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yi-Ling Lin
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- * E-mail: (THC); (YLL)
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15
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Roles for endothelial cells in dengue virus infection. Adv Virol 2012; 2012:840654. [PMID: 22952474 PMCID: PMC3431041 DOI: 10.1155/2012/840654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2012] [Accepted: 07/19/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Dengue viruses cause two severe diseases that alter vascular fluid barrier functions, dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shock syndrome (DSS). The endothelium is the primary fluid barrier of the vasculature and ultimately the effects of dengue virus infection that cause capillary leakage impact endothelial cell (EC) barrier functions. The ability of dengue virus to infect the endothelium provides a direct means for dengue to alter capillary permeability, permit virus replication, and induce responses that recruit immune cells to the endothelium. Recent studies focused on dengue virus infection of primary ECs have demonstrated that ECs are efficiently infected, rapidly produce viral progeny, and elicit immune enhancing cytokine responses that may contribute to pathogenesis. Furthermore, infected ECs have also been implicated in enhancing viremia and immunopathogenesis within murine dengue disease models. Thus dengue-infected ECs have the potential to directly contribute to immune enhancement, capillary permeability, viremia, and immune targeting of the endothelium. These effects implicate responses of the infected endothelium in dengue pathogenesis and rationalize therapeutic targeting of the endothelium and EC responses as a means of reducing the severity of dengue virus disease.
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Synergistic interactions between the NS3(hel) and E proteins contribute to the virulence of dengue virus type 1. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2012; 6:e1624. [PMID: 22530074 PMCID: PMC3328427 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2011] [Accepted: 03/08/2012] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Dengue includes a broad range of symptoms, ranging from fever to hemorrhagic fever and may occasionally have alternative clinical presentations. Many possible viral genetic determinants of the intrinsic virulence of dengue virus (DENV) in the host have been identified, but no conclusive evidence of a correlation between viral genotype and virus transmissibility and pathogenicity has been obtained. Methodology/Principal Findings We used reverse genetics techniques to engineer DENV-1 viruses with subsets of mutations found in two different neuroadapted derivatives. The mutations were inserted into an infectious clone of DENV-1 not adapted to mice. The replication and viral production capacity of the recombinant viruses were assessed in vitro and in vivo. The results demonstrated that paired mutations in the envelope protein (E) and in the helicase domain of the NS3 (NS3hel) protein had a synergistic effect enhancing viral fitness in human and mosquito derived cell lines. E mutations alone generated no detectable virulence in the mouse model; however, the combination of these mutations with NS3hel mutations, which were mildly virulent on their own, resulted in a highly neurovirulent phenotype. Conclusions/Significance The generation of recombinant viruses carrying specific E and NS3hel proteins mutations increased viral fitness both in vitro and in vivo by increasing RNA synthesis and viral load (these changes being positively correlated with central nervous system damage), the strength of the immune response and animal mortality. The introduction of only pairs of amino acid substitutions into the genome of a non-mouse adapted DENV-1 strain was sufficient to alter viral fitness substantially. Given current limitations to our understanding of the molecular basis of dengue neuropathogenesis, these results could contribute to the development of attenuated strains for use in vaccinations and provide insights into virus/host interactions and new information about the mechanisms of basic dengue biology. Dengue virus constitutes a significant public health problem in tropical regions of the world. Despite the high morbidity and mortality of this infection, no effective antiviral drugs or vaccines are available for the treatment or prevention of dengue infections. The profile of clinical signs associated with dengue infection has changed in recent years with an increase in the number of episodes displaying unusual signs. We use reverse genetics technology to engineer DENV-1 viruses with subsets of mutations previously identified in highly neurovirulent strains to provide insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying dengue neuropathogenesis. We found that single mutations affecting the E and NS3hel proteins, introduced in a different genetic context, had a synergistic effect increasing DENV replication capacity in human and mosquito derived cells in vitro. We also demonstrated correlations between the presence of these mutations and viral replication efficiency, viral loads, the induction of innate immune response genes and pathogenesis in a mouse model. These results should improve our understanding of the DENV-host cell interaction and contribute to the development of effective antiviral strategies.
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Zhao P, Zhao L, Zhang T, Qi Y, Wang T, Liu K, Wang H, Feng H, Jin H, Qin C, Yang S, Xia X. Innate immune response gene expression profiles in central nervous system of mice infected with rabies virus. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2011; 34:503-12. [PMID: 22005334 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2011.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2011] [Revised: 09/16/2011] [Accepted: 09/21/2011] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The present study was focused on the modulation of innate immune response genes in CNS of mouse in response to rabies virus (RABV) infection. The global gene expression changes in brains of RABV- or mock-infected mice were investigated using DNA microarray analysis and quantitative real-time PCR. Then functional enrichment of the differentially expressed mRNAs was performed. Microarray analysis showed that 390 genes in brain were significantly (P<0.01) regulated in response to RABV infection, with obviously up-regulated genes like interferon (IFN) stimulated genes (ISGs), IFN inducible transcription factors, cytokines and complement, etc. The significant pathways of differentially expressed genes are mainly involved in JAK-STAT signaling pathway, antigen processing and presentation, ubiquitin mediated proteolysis and complement cascades. The results suggest that the modulated genes in infected CNS were possibly involved in pathogenesis of rabies. Conversely, they may have protective effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pingsen Zhao
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100021, China.
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Sariol CA, Martínez MI, Rivera F, Rodríguez IV, Pantoja P, Abel K, Arana T, Giavedoni L, Hodara V, White LJ, Angleró YI, Montaner LJ, Kraiselburd EN. Decreased dengue replication and an increased anti-viral humoral response with the use of combined Toll-like receptor 3 and 7/8 agonists in macaques. PLoS One 2011; 6:e19323. [PMID: 21559444 PMCID: PMC3084804 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0019323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2010] [Accepted: 03/31/2011] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Pathogenic versus protective outcomes to Dengue virus (DENV) infection are
associated with innate immune function. This study aimed to determine the
role of increased TLR3- and TLR7/8-mediated innate signaling after Dengue
infection of rhesus macaques in vivo to evaluate its impact
on disease and anti-DENV immune responses. Methodology/Principal Findings TLR3 and TLR7/8 agonists (emulsified in Montanide) were administered
subcutaneously to rhesus macaques at 48 hours and 7 days after DENV
infection. The Frequency and activation of myeloid dendritic cells,
plasmacytoid dendritic cells, and B cells were measured by flow cytometry
while the serum levels of 14 different cytokines and chemokines were
quantified. Adaptive immune responses were measured by DENV-specific
antibody subtype measurements. Results showed that the combined TLR agonists
reduced viral replication and induced the development of a proinflammatory
reaction, otherwise absent in Dengue infection alone, without any clear
signs of exacerbated disease. Specifically, the TLR-induced response was
characterized by activation changes in mDC subsets concurrent with higher
serum levels of CXCL-10 and IL-1Ra. TLR stimulation also induced higher
titers of anti-DENV antibodies and acted to increase the IgG2/IgG1 ratio of
anti-DENV to favor the subtype associated with DENV control. We also
observed an effect of DENV-mediated suppression of mDC activation consistent
with prior in vitro studies. Conclusions/Significance These data show that concurrent TLR3/7/8 activation of the innate immune
response after DENV infection in vivo acts to increase
antiviral mechanisms via increased inflammatory and humoral responses in
rhesus macaques, resulting in decreased viremia and melioration of the
infection. These findings underscore an in vivo protective
rather than a pathogenic role for combined TLR3/7/8-mediated activation in
Dengue infection of rhesus macaques. Our study provides definitive
proof-of-concept into the mechanism by which DENV evades immune recognition
and activation in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A Sariol
- Unit of Comparative Medicine, Caribbean Primate Research Center, University of Puerto Rico-Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico, United States of America.
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Abstract
Multiplex technologies at both the mRNA and protein level have given researchers the ability to determine the co-ordinated cellular response to any given stimuli, in both biological and laboratory-derived fluids. This article examines some of the different mRNA and protein multiplex platforms available and how they may be used in assessing vaccine immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gendie E Lash
- Reproductive and Vascular Biology Group, Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4HH, UK.
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20
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Balas C, Kennel A, Deauvieau F, Sodoyer R, Arnaud-Barbe N, Lang J, Guy B. Different innate signatures induced in human monocyte-derived dendritic cells by wild-type dengue 3 virus, attenuated but reactogenic dengue 3 vaccine virus, or attenuated nonreactogenic dengue 1-4 vaccine virus strains. J Infect Dis 2011; 203:103-8. [PMID: 21148502 PMCID: PMC3086443 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiq022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2010] [Accepted: 10/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
DNA microarrays were used to assess the innate gene signature in human myeloid dendritic cells infected with chimeric dengue 1-4 vaccines, a wild-type dengue 3 virus, or a classically attenuated serotype 3 vaccine shown to be reactogenic in humans. We observed a very reproducible signature for each of the 4 chimeric dengue vaccines, involving stimulation of type I interferon and associated genes, together with genes encoding chemokines and other mediators involved in the initiation of adaptive responses. In contrast, wild-typeDEN3 virus induced a predominantly inflammatory profile, while the reactogenic attenuated serotype 3 vaccine appeared to induce a blunted response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Balas
- Research and Development, Sanofi Pasteur, 69280, Marcy l'Étoile, France
| | - Audrey Kennel
- Research and Development, Sanofi Pasteur, 69280, Marcy l'Étoile, France
| | | | - Regis Sodoyer
- Research and Development, Sanofi Pasteur, 69280, Marcy l'Étoile, France
| | | | - Jean Lang
- Research and Development, Sanofi Pasteur, 69280, Marcy l'Étoile, France
| | - Bruno Guy
- Research and Development, Sanofi Pasteur, 69280, Marcy l'Étoile, France
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Abstract
Dengue has been recognized as one of the most important vector-borne emerging infectious diseases globally. Though dengue normally causes a self-limiting infection, some patients may develop a life-threatening illness, dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF)/dengue shock syndrome (DSS). The reason why DHF/DSS occurs in certain individuals is unclear. Studies in the endemic regions suggest that the preexisting antibodies are a risk factor for DHF/DSS. Viremia and thrombocytopenia are the key clinical features of dengue virus infection in patients. The amounts of virus circulating in patients are highly correlated with severe dengue disease, DHF/DSS. Also, the disturbance, mainly a transient depression, of hematological cells is a critical clinical finding in acute dengue patients. However, the cells responsible for the dengue viremia are unresolved in spite of the intensive efforts been made. Dengue virus appears to replicate and proliferate in many adapted cell lines, but these in vitro properties are extremely difficult to be reproduced in primary cells or in vivo. This paper summarizes reports on the permissive cells in vitro and in vivo and suggests a hematological cell lineage for dengue virus infection in vivo, with the hope that a new focus will shed light on further understanding of the complexities of dengue disease.
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22
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Loke P, Hammond SN, Leung JM, Kim CC, Batra S, Rocha C, Balmaseda A, Harris E. Gene expression patterns of dengue virus-infected children from nicaragua reveal a distinct signature of increased metabolism. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2010; 4:e710. [PMID: 20559541 PMCID: PMC2886038 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2009] [Accepted: 04/21/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Infection with dengue viruses (DENV) leads to a spectrum of disease outcomes. The pathophysiology of severe versus non-severe manifestations of DENV infection may be driven by host responses, which could be reflected in the transcriptional profiles of peripheral blood immune cells. Methodology/Principal Findings We conducted genome-wide microarray analysis of whole blood RNA from 34 DENV-infected children in Nicaragua collected on days 3–6 of illness, with different disease manifestations. Gene expression analysis identified genes that are differentially regulated between clinical subgroups. The most striking transcriptional differences were observed between dengue patients with and without shock, especially in the expression of mitochondrial ribosomal proteins associated with protein biosynthesis. In the dengue hemorrhagic fever patients, one subset of differentially expressed genes encode neutrophil-derived anti-microbial peptides associated with innate immunity. By performing a meta-analysis of our dataset in conjunction with previously published datasets, we confirmed that DENV infection in vivo is associated with large changes to protein and nucleic acid metabolism. Additionally, whereas in vitro infection leads to an increased interferon signature, this was not consistently observed from in vivo patient samples, suggesting that the interferon response in vivo is relatively transient and was no longer observed by days 3–6 of illness. Conclusions/Significance These data highlight important differences between different manifestations of severity during DENV infection as well as identify some commonalities. Compilation of larger datasets in the future across multiple studies, as we have initiated in this report, may well lead to better prediction of disease manifestation via a systems biology approach. Dengue is a widespread viral disease for which over 3 billion people are at risk. There are no drug treatments or vaccines available for this disease. It is also difficult for physicians to predict which patients are at highest risk for the severe manifestations known as dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shock syndrome (DSS). We used genome-wide transcriptional profiling analysis to study peripheral blood responses to dengue among patients from Nicaragua. We found that patients with severe manifestations involving shock had very different transcriptional profiles from dengue patients with mild and moderate illness. We then compared our results with other microarray experiments on dengue patients available from public databases and confirmed that dengue is often associated with large changes to the metabolic processes within cells. This approach could identify prognostic markers for severe dengue as well as provide a better understanding of the pathophysiology associated with different grades of disease severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- P'ng Loke
- Department of Medical Parasitology, School of Medicine, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail: (PL); (EH)
| | | | - Jacqueline M. Leung
- Department of Medical Parasitology, School of Medicine, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Charles C. Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Sajeev Batra
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Crisanta Rocha
- Unidad de Infectología, Hospital Infantil Manuel Jesús de Rivera, Managua, Nicaragua
| | - Angel Balmaseda
- Departamento de Virología, Centro Nacional de Diagóstico y Referencia, Ministerio de Salud, Managua, Nicaragua
| | - Eva Harris
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (PL); (EH)
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23
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Tyler KL, Leser JS, Phang TL, Clarke P. Gene expression in the brain during reovirus encephalitis. J Neurovirol 2010; 16:56-71. [PMID: 20158406 DOI: 10.3109/13550280903586394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Viral encephalitis remains a significant cause of morbidity and mortality throughout the world. We performed microarray analysis to identify genes and pathways that are differentially regulated during reovirus encephalitis and that may provide novel therapeutic targets for virus-induced diseases of the central nervous system (CNS). An increase in the expression of 130 cellular genes was found in the brains of reovirus-infected mice at early times post infection, compared to mock-infected controls. The up-regulation of these genes was consistent with activation of innate immune responses, particularly interferon signaling. At later times post infection, when significant CNS injury is present and mice exhibit signs of severe neurologic disease, many more (1374) genes were up-regulated, indicating that increased gene expression correlates with disease pathology. Virus-induced gene expression at late times post infection was again consistent with the activation of innate immune responses. However, additional significant pathways included those associated with cytokine signaling and apoptosis, both of which can contribute to CNS injury. This is the first report comparing virus-induced cellular gene and pathway regulation at early and late times following virus infection of the brain. The shift of virus-induced gene expression from innate immune responses at early times post infection to cytokine signaling and apoptosis at later times suggests a potential therapeutic strategy that preserves early protective responses whilst inhibiting later responses that contribute to pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth L Tyler
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado-Denver, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
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24
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Muñoz-Jordán JL, Fredericksen BL. How flaviviruses activate and suppress the interferon response. Viruses 2010; 2:676-691. [PMID: 21994652 PMCID: PMC3185611 DOI: 10.3390/v2020676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2009] [Revised: 02/04/2010] [Accepted: 02/04/2010] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The flavivirus genus includes viruses with a remarkable ability to produce disease on a large scale. The expansion and increased endemicity of dengue and West Nile viruses in the Americas exemplifies their medical and epidemiological importance. The rapid detection of viral infection and induction of the innate antiviral response are crucial to determining the outcome of infection. The intracellular pathogen receptors RIG-I and MDA5 play a central role in detecting flavivirus infections and initiating a robust antiviral response. Yet, these viruses are still capable of producing acute illness in humans. It is now clear that flaviviruses utilize a variety of mechanisms to modulate the interferon response. The non-structural proteins of the various flaviviruses reduce expression of interferon dependent genes by blocking phosphorylation, enhancing degradation or down-regulating expression of major components of the JAK/STAT pathway. Recent studies indicate that interferon modulation is an important factor in the development of severe flaviviral illness. This suggests that an increased understanding of viral-host interactions will facilitate the development of novel therapeutics to treat these viral infections and improved biological models to study flavivirus pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge L. Muñoz-Jordán
- Molecular Diagnostics and Research Laboratory, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Vector Borne Infectious Diseases, Dengue Branch, 1324 Calle Cañada, San Juan, PR 00920, Puerto Rico
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +1-787-2873728; Fax: +1-787-706-2496
| | - Brenda L. Fredericksen
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics and Maryland Pathogen Research Institute, University of Maryland, MD 20742, USA; E-Mail:
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25
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Dengue virus inhibits the production of type I interferon in primary human dendritic cells. J Virol 2010; 84:4845-50. [PMID: 20164230 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02514-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) infects human immune cells in vitro and likely infects dendritic cells (DCs) in vivo. DENV-2 productive infection induces activation and release of high levels of chemokines and proinflammatory cytokines in monocyte-derived DCs (moDCs), with the notable exception of alpha/beta interferon (IFN-alpha/beta). Interestingly, DENV-2-infected moDCs fail to prime T cells, most likely due to the lack of IFN-alpha/beta released by moDCs, since this effect was reversed by addition of exogenous IFN-beta. Together, our data show that inhibition of IFN-alpha/beta production by DENV in primary human moDCs is a novel mechanism of immune evasion.
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26
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Abstract
Dengue virus is sensed in mammalian cells by Toll-like receptors and DExD/H box RNA helicases, triggering a Type 1 interferon response. Interferon acts upon infected and noninfected cells by stimulating the JAK/STAT signaling pathway resulting in the activation of interferon stimulated genes that lead cells toward the establishment of an antiviral response. The recognition of the importance of this rapid protective response should come with the realization that dengue virus would circumvent the interferon response to propagate in the host. There is recent, mounting evidence for mechanisms encoded by the dengue virus that weaken interferon signaling. Nonstructural proteins expressed separately or in replicon vectors block phosphorylation and down-regulate expression of major components of the JAK/STAT pathway, causing reduced activation of gene expression in response to IFNalpha/beta interferon. As our understanding of viral-host interaction increases, opportunities for improved biological models and therapeutics discovery arise.
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27
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Dengue virus infection induces upregulation of GRP78, which acts to chaperone viral antigen production. J Virol 2009; 83:12871-80. [PMID: 19793816 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01419-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) pathogenesis is related to the host responses to viral infection within target cells, and therefore, this study assessed intracellular changes in host proteins following DENV infection. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry identified upregulation of the host endoplasmic reticulum (ER) chaperone GRP78 in K562 cells following DENV infection, in the absence of virus-induced cell death. Upregulation of GRP78 in DENV-infected cells was confirmed by immunostaining and confocal microscopy and by Western blot analysis and was also observed in DENV-infected primary monocyte-derived macrophages, a natural target cell type for DENV infection. GRP78 was upregulated in both DENV antigen-positive and -negative cells in the DENV-infected culture, suggesting a bystander effect, with the highest GRP78 levels coincident with high-level DENV antigen production and infectious-virus release. Transfection of target cells to express GRP78 prior to DENV challenge did not affect subsequent DENV infection, but cleavage of GRP78 with the SubAB toxin, during an established DENV infection, yielded a 10- to 100-fold decrease in infectious-virus release, loss of intracellular DENV particles, and a dramatic decrease in intracellular DENV antigen. However, DENV RNA levels were unchanged, indicating normal DENV RNA replication but altered DENV antigen levels in the absence of GRP78. Thus, GRP78 is upregulated by DENV infection and is necessary for DENV antigen production and/or accumulation. This may be a common requirement for viruses such as flaviviruses that depend heavily on the ER for coordinated protein production and processing.
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28
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Khodarev NN, Roach P, Pitroda SP, Golden DW, Bhayani M, Shao MY, Darga TE, Beveridge MG, Sood RF, Sutton HG, Beckett MA, Mauceri HJ, Posner MC, Weichselbaum RR. STAT1 pathway mediates amplification of metastatic potential and resistance to therapy. PLoS One 2009; 4:e5821. [PMID: 19503789 PMCID: PMC2688034 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2009] [Accepted: 05/08/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Traditionally IFN/STAT1 signaling is connected with an anti-viral response and pro-apoptotic tumor-suppressor functions. Emerging functions of a constitutively activated IFN/STAT1 pathway suggest an association with an aggressive tumor phenotype. We hypothesized that tumor clones that constitutively overexpress this pathway are preferentially selected by the host microenvironment due to a resistance to STAT1-dependent cytotoxicity and demonstrate increased metastatic ability combined with increased resistance to genotoxic stress. Methodology/Principal Findings Here we report that clones of B16F1 tumors grown in the lungs of syngeneic C57BL/6 mice demonstrate variable transcriptional levels of IFN/STAT1 pathway expression. Tumor cells that constitutively overexpress the IFN/STAT1 pathway (STAT1H genotype) are selected by the lung microenvironment. STAT1H tumor cells also demonstrate resistance to IFN-gamma (IFNγ), ionizing radiation (IR), and doxorubicin relative to parental B16F1 and low expressors of the IFN/STAT1 pathway (STAT1L genotype). Stable knockdown of STAT1 reversed the aggressive phenotype and decreased both lung colonization and resistance to genotoxic stress. Conclusions Our results identify a pathway activated by tumor-stromal interactions thereby selecting for pro-metastatic and therapy-resistant tumor clones. New therapies targeted against the IFN/STAT1 signaling pathway may provide an effective strategy to treat or sensitize aggressive tumor clones to conventional cancer therapies and potentially prevent distant organ colonization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolai N. Khodarev
- Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Paul Roach
- Department of Surgery, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Sean P. Pitroda
- Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Daniel W. Golden
- Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Mihir Bhayani
- Department of Surgery, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Michael Y. Shao
- Department of Surgery, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Thomas E. Darga
- Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Mara G. Beveridge
- Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Ravi F. Sood
- Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Harold G. Sutton
- Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Michael A. Beckett
- Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Helena J. Mauceri
- Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Mitchell C. Posner
- Department of Surgery, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Ralph R. Weichselbaum
- Department of Radiation and Cellular Oncology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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29
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Long HT, Hibberd ML, Hien TT, Dung NM, Van Ngoc T, Farrar J, Wills B, Simmons CP. Patterns of gene transcript abundance in the blood of children with severe or uncomplicated dengue highlight differences in disease evolution and host response to dengue virus infection. J Infect Dis 2009; 199:537-546. [PMID: 19138155 DOI: 10.1086/596507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
DNA microarrays and specific reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction assays were used to reveal transcriptional patterns in the blood of children presenting with dengue shock syndrome (DSS) and well-matched patients with uncomplicated dengue. The transcriptome of patients with acute uncomplicated dengue was characterized by a metabolically demanding "host-defense" profile; transcripts related to oxidative metabolism, interferon signaling, protein ubiquination, apoptosis, and cytokines were prominent. In contrast, the transcriptome of patients with DSS was surprisingly benign, particularly with regard to transcripts derived from apoptotic and type I interferon pathways. These data highlight significant heterogeneity in the type or timing of host transcriptional immune responses precipitated by dengue virus infection independent of the duration of illness. In particular, they suggest that, if transcriptional events in the blood compartment contribute to capillary leakage leading to hypovolemic shock, they occur before cardiovascular decompensation, a finding that has implications for rational adjuvant therapy in this syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Tran Tinh Hien
- Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | | | - Tran Van Ngoc
- Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Jeremy Farrar
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.,Centre for Tropical Medicine, University of Oxford, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Bridget Wills
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.,Centre for Tropical Medicine, University of Oxford, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Cameron P Simmons
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.,Centre for Tropical Medicine, University of Oxford, Churchill Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
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30
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Coffey LL, Mertens E, Brehin AC, Fernandez-Garcia MD, Amara A, Després P, Sakuntabhai A. Human genetic determinants of dengue virus susceptibility. Microbes Infect 2009; 11:143-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2008.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2008] [Accepted: 12/05/2008] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Bordignon J, Probst CM, Mosimann ALP, Pavoni DP, Stella V, Buck GA, Satproedprai N, Fawcett P, Zanata SM, de Noronha L, Krieger MA, Duarte Dos Santos CN. Expression profile of interferon stimulated genes in central nervous system of mice infected with dengue virus Type-1. Virology 2008; 377:319-29. [PMID: 18570970 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2008.04.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2008] [Revised: 03/03/2008] [Accepted: 04/24/2008] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) infection can cause a self-limiting disease (dengue fever) or a more severe clinical presentation known as dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF)/dengue shock syndrome (DSS). Furthermore, data from recent dengue epidemics in Brazil indicate that the neurological manifestations are becoming more prevalent. However, the neuropathogenesis of dengue are not well understood. The balance between viral replication efficiency and innate immunity--in opposition during the early stages of infection--determines the clinical outcome of DENV infection. In this study, we investigated the effects of DENV infection on the transcription profile of the central nervous system (CNS) of mice. We observed in infected mice the up-regulation of 151 genes possibly involved in neuropathogenesis of dengue. Conversely, they may have a protective effect. Ingenuity Systems software analysis demonstrated, that the main pathways modulated by DENV infection in the mouse CNS are involved in interferon signaling and antigen presentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliano Bordignon
- Instituto de Biologia Molecular do Paraná, Rua Prof Algacyr Munhoz Máder 3775, 81350-010, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
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The cellular antiviral protein viperin is attenuated by proteasome-mediated protein degradation in Japanese encephalitis virus-infected cells. J Virol 2008; 82:10455-64. [PMID: 18768981 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00438-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Viperin is identified as an antiviral protein induced by interferon (IFN), viral infections, and pathogen-associated molecules. In this study, we found that viperin is highly induced at the RNA level by Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) and Sindbis virus (SIN) and that viperin protein is degraded in JEV-infected cells through a proteasome-dependent mechanism. Promoter analysis revealed that SIN induces viperin expression in an IFN-dependent manner but that JEV by itself activates the viperin promoter through IFN regulatory factor-3 and AP-1. The overexpression of viperin significantly decreased the production of SIN, but not of JEV, whereas the proteasome inhibitor MG132 sustained the protein level and antiviral effect of viperin in JEV-infected cells. Knockdown of viperin expression by RNA interference also enhanced the replication of SIN, but not that of JEV. Our results suggest that even though viperin gene expression is highly induced by JEV, it is negatively regulated at the protein level to counteract its antiviral effect. In contrast, SIN induces viperin through the action of IFN, and viperin exhibits potent antiviral activity against SIN.
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Warke RV, Becerra A, Zawadzka A, Schmidt DJ, Martin KJ, Giaya K, Dinsmore JH, Woda M, Hendricks G, Levine T, Rothman AL, Bosch I. Efficient dengue virus (DENV) infection of human muscle satellite cells upregulates type I interferon response genes and differentially modulates MHC I expression on bystander and DENV-infected cells. J Gen Virol 2008; 89:1605-1615. [PMID: 18559930 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.2008/000968-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus that causes an acute febrile disease in humans, characterized by musculoskeletal pain, headache, rash and leukopenia. The cause of myalgia during DENV infection is still unknown. To determine whether DENV can infect primary muscle cells, human muscle satellite cells were exposed to DENV in vitro. The results demonstrated for the first time high-efficiency infection and replication of DENV in human primary muscle satellite cells. Changes in global gene expression were also examined in these cells following DENV infection using Affymetrix GeneChip analysis. The differentially regulated genes belonged to two main functional categories: cell growth and development, and antiviral type I interferon (IFN) response genes. Increased expression of the type I IFN response genes for tumour necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL), melanoma-derived antigen 5 (MDA-5), IFN-gamma-inducible protein 10 (IP-10), galectin 3 soluble binding protein (LGals3BP) and IFN response factor 7 (IRF7) was confirmed by quantitative RT-PCR. Furthermore, higher levels of cell-surface-bound intracellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and soluble ICAM-1 in the cell-culture medium were detected following DENV infection. However, DENV infection impaired the ability of the infected cells in the culture medium to upregulate cell-surface expression of MHC I molecules, suggesting a possible mechanism of immune evasion by DENV. The findings of this study warrant further clinical research to identify whether muscle cells are targets for DENV infection during the acute stage of the disease in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajas V Warke
- Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
| | - Aniuska Becerra
- Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
| | | | - Diane J Schmidt
- Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
| | - Katherine J Martin
- Bioarray Consulting, Belmont, MA, USA.,Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
| | - Kris Giaya
- Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
| | | | - Marcia Woda
- Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
| | - Gregory Hendricks
- Electron Microscopy Core Facility, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
| | - Tracy Levine
- Electron Microscopy Core Facility, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
| | - Alan L Rothman
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655, USA.,Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
| | - Irene Bosch
- Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655, USA.,Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
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Abstract
By providing a global and integrated view of the host response to infection, functional genomic and systems-biology approaches are contributing to our understanding of RNA virus–host interactions. One area in which these approaches are being put to particularly good use is in shedding new light on the components of innate antiviral defence mechanisms and the viral strategies used to regulate or overcome them. Genomic analyses have helped to reveal virus-specific differences in the way that viral recognition through pathogen-recognition receptors (PRRs) initiates intracellular signalling cascades. Whereas influenza virus appears to signal primarily through retinoic-acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I), West Nile virus signals through both RIG-I and melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 (MDA5). Both viruses induce the expression of interferon (IFN)-regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) target genes and IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs). Genomic analyses have provided a comprehensive view of the transcriptional programmes that are induced by Toll-like receptor (TLR) activation. One transcriptional profile is universally activated by all TLRs and a second profile is specific to TLR3 and TLR4. Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) is the key regulator of the universal response, which occurs early after TLR stimulation, and the IFN-stimulated response element (ISRE) is the key component of the TLR3/TLR4 response, which is induced after the NF-κB response. Some highly virulent viruses, such as Ebola virus and rabies virus, are successful at inhibiting ISG expression, resulting in the marked suppression of genes in key innate antiviral pathways, including those mediated by IRF3. There seems to be a correlation between the antagonism of the IFN response and virulence. Genomic analyses of the host response to the reconstructed 1918 pandemic influenza virus have revealed similarities and differences to contemporary influenza virus infection. Contemporary and 1918 influenza viruses each trigger an innate immune response that includes the expression of NF-κB and IRF3 target genes, and both viruses trigger a robust cytokine response that attracts immune-cell infiltration to infected tissues. Unlike contemporary virus strains, in which the early response to infection is resolved, the innate immune response triggered by the 1918 influenza virus is characterized by a strong and sustained induction that is associated with massive tissue damage and death. Global gene-expression profiling has revealed that many effective, attenuated live-virus vaccines transiently induce a stronger type I IFN response than the cognate pathogen, and therefore implicates modulation of this response as an important strategy in rational vaccine design.
By providing a global view of the host response to infection, functional genomic approaches are proving useful in deciphering complex virus–host interactions. Here, the authors reveal how such approaches are being used to better understand viral triggering and regulation of host innate immune responses. Although often encoding fewer than a dozen genes, RNA viruses can overcome host antiviral responses and wreak havoc on the cells they infect. Some manage to evade host antiviral defences, whereas others elicit an aberrant or disproportional immune response. Both scenarios can result in the disruption of intracellular signalling pathways and significant pathology in the host. Systems-biology approaches are increasingly being used to study the processes of viral triggering and regulation of host immune responses. By providing a global and integrated view of cellular events, these approaches are beginning to unravel some of the complexities of virus–host interactions and provide new insights into how RNA viruses cause disease.
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Abstract
Macaques have served as models for more than 70 human infectious diseases of diverse etiologies, including a multitude of agents—bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, prions. The remarkable diversity of human infectious diseases that have been modeled in the macaque includes global, childhood, and tropical diseases as well as newly emergent, sexually transmitted, oncogenic, degenerative neurologic, potential bioterrorism, and miscellaneous other diseases. Historically, macaques played a major role in establishing the etiology of yellow fever, polio, and prion diseases. With rare exceptions (Chagas disease, bartonellosis), all of the infectious diseases in this review are of Old World origin. Perhaps most surprising is the large number of tropical (16), newly emergent (7), and bioterrorism diseases (9) that have been modeled in macaques. Many of these human diseases (e.g., AIDS, hepatitis E, bartonellosis) are a consequence of zoonotic infection. However, infectious agents of certain diseases, including measles and tuberculosis, can sometimes go both ways, and thus several human pathogens are threats to nonhuman primates including macaques. Through experimental studies in macaques, researchers have gained insight into pathogenic mechanisms and novel treatment and vaccine approaches for many human infectious diseases, most notably acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which is caused by infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Other infectious agents for which macaques have been a uniquely valuable resource for biomedical research, and particularly vaccinology, include influenza virus, paramyxoviruses, flaviviruses, arenaviruses, hepatitis E virus, papillomavirus, smallpox virus, Mycobacteria, Bacillus anthracis, Helicobacter pylori, Yersinia pestis, and Plasmodium species. This review summarizes the extensive past and present research on macaque models of human infectious disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murray B Gardner
- Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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