CMF22 is a broadly conserved axonemal protein and is required for propulsive motility in Trypanosoma brucei

Spatial confinement of Trypanosoma brucei in microfluidic traps provides a new tool to study free swimming parasites

Trypanosoma brucei is the causative agent of African trypanosomiasis and is transmitted by the tsetse fly (Glossina spp.). All stages of this extracellular parasite possess a single flagellum that is attached to the cell body and confers a high degree of motility. While several stages are amenable to culture in vitro, longitudinal high-resolution imaging of free-swimming parasites has been challenging, mostly due to the rapid flagellar beating that constantly twists the cell body. Here, using microfabrication, we generated various microfluidic devices with traps of different geometrical properties. Investigation of trap topology allowed us to define the one most suitable for single T. brucei confinement within the field of view of an inverted microscope while allowing the parasite to remain motile. Chips populated with V-shaped traps allowed us to investigate various phenomena in cultured procyclic stage wild-type parasites, and to compare them with parasites whose motility was altered upon knockdown of a paraflagellar rod component. Among the properties that we investigated were trap invasion, parasite motility, and the visualization of organelles labelled with fluorescent dyes. We envisage that this tool we have named "Tryp-Chip" will be a useful tool for the scientific community, as it could allow high-throughput, high-temporal and high-spatial resolution imaging of free-swimming T. brucei parasites.

Integrated modeling of the Nexin-dynein regulatory complex reveals its regulatory mechanism

Cilia are hairlike protrusions that project from the surface of eukaryotic cells and play key roles in cell signaling and motility. Ciliary motility is regulated by the conserved nexin-dynein regulatory complex (N-DRC), which links adjacent doublet microtubules and regulates and coordinates the activity of outer doublet complexes. Despite its critical role in cilia motility, the assembly and molecular basis of the regulatory mechanism are poorly understood. Here, using cryo-electron microscopy in conjunction with biochemical cross-linking and integrative modeling, we localize 12 DRC subunits in the N-DRC structure of Tetrahymena thermophila. We also find that the CCDC96/113 complex is in close contact with the DRC9/10 in the linker region. In addition, we reveal that the N-DRC is associated with a network of coiled-coil proteins that most likely mediates N-DRC regulatory activity.

Integrated modeling of the Nexin-dynein regulatory complex reveals its regulatory mechanism

Cilia are hairlike protrusions that project from the surface of eukaryotic cells and play key roles in cell signaling and motility. Ciliary motility is regulated by the conserved nexin-dynein regulatory complex (N-DRC), which links adjacent doublet microtubules and regulates and coordinates the activity of outer doublet complexes. Despite its critical role in cilia motility, the assembly and molecular basis of the regulatory mechanism are poorly understood. Here, utilizing cryo-electron microscopy in conjunction with biochemical cross-linking and integrative modeling, we localized 12 DRC subunits in the N-DRC structure of Tetrahymena thermophila . We also found that the CCDC96/113 complex is in close contact with the N-DRC. In addition, we revealed that the N-DRC is associated with a network of coiled-coil proteins that most likely mediates N-DRC regulatory activity.

Nexin-Dynein regulatory complex component DRC7 but not FBXL13 is required for sperm flagellum formation and male fertility in mice

Flagella and cilia are evolutionarily conserved cellular organelles. Abnormal formation or motility of these organelles in humans causes several syndromic diseases termed ciliopathies. The central component of flagella and cilia is the axoneme that is composed of the ‘9+2’ microtubule arrangement, dynein arms, radial spokes, and the Nexin-Dynein Regulatory Complex (N-DRC). The N-DRC is localized between doublet microtubules and has been extensively studied in the unicellular flagellate Chlamydomonas. Recently, it has been reported that TCTE1 (DRC5), a component of the N-DRC, is essential for proper sperm motility and male fertility in mice. Further, TCTE1 has been shown to interact with FBXL13 (DRC6) and DRC7; however, functional roles of FBXL13 and DRC7 in mammals have not been elucidated. Here we show that Fbxl13 and Drc7 expression are testes-enriched in mice. Although Fbxl13 knockout (KO) mice did not show any obvious phenotypes, Drc7 KO male mice were infertile due to their short immotile spermatozoa. In Drc7 KO spermatids, the axoneme is disorganized and the ‘9+2’ microtubule arrangement was difficult to detect. Further, other N-DRC components fail to incorporate into the flagellum without DRC7. These results indicate that Drc7, but not Fbxl13, is essential for the correct assembly of the N-DRC and flagella.

In recent years, almost one in six couples face infertility, and nearly 50% of cases are attributed to male factors. It has been shown that approximately 15% of male infertility is caused by genetic factors. The conditions of male infertility mainly include spermatozoa with abnormal morphology (teratozoospermia), reduced sperm motility (asthenozoospermia), and no or low sperm count (azoospermia). Multiple morphological abnormalities of the sperm flagella (MMAF) are characterized as asthenoteratozoospermia, which is a condition with abnormal sperm tail morphology, including absent, coiled, bent, or short tails. Sperm tails are formed during spermiogenesis; however, the mechanism that govern tail formation remains unclear. Here we mutated Fbxl13 and Drc7, two genes with strong expression in mouse testis and which have been shown to be important for flagellum formation and regulation in other systems. Deletion of Drc7 leads to aberrant tail formation in mouse spermatozoa that phenocopies patients with MMAF, while deletion of Fbxl13 has no observable effect on sperm function. Our results identified DRC7 as an important factor for sperm flagellum formation.

Cryo electron tomography with volta phase plate reveals novel structural foundations of the 96-nm axonemal repeat in the pathogen Trypanosoma brucei

The 96-nm axonemal repeat includes dynein motors and accessory structures as the foundation for motility of eukaryotic flagella and cilia. However, high-resolution 3D axoneme structures are unavailable for organisms among the Excavates, which include pathogens of medical and economic importance. Here we report cryo electron tomography structures of the 96-nm repeat from Trypanosoma brucei, a protozoan parasite in the Excavate lineage that causes African trypanosomiasis. We examined bloodstream and procyclic life cycle stages, and a knockdown lacking DRC11/CMF22 of the nexin dynein regulatory complex (NDRC). Sub-tomogram averaging yields a resolution of 21.8 Å for the 96-nm repeat. We discovered several lineage-specific structures, including novel inter-doublet linkages and microtubule inner proteins (MIPs). We establish that DRC11/CMF22 is required for the NDRC proximal lobe that binds the adjacent doublet microtubule. We propose that lineage-specific elaboration of axoneme structure in T. brucei reflects adaptations to support unique motility needs in diverse host environments.

Scaffold subunits support associated subunit assembly in the Chlamydomonas ciliary nexin-dynein regulatory complex

The nexin-dynein regulatory complex (N-DRC) in motile cilia and flagella functions as a linker between neighboring doublet microtubules, acts to stabilize the axonemal core structure, and serves as a central hub for the regulation of ciliary motility. Although the N-DRC has been studied extensively using genetic, biochemical, and structural approaches, the precise arrangement of the 11 (or more) N-DRC subunits remains unknown. Here, using cryo-electron tomography, we have compared the structure of Chlamydomonas wild-type flagella to that of strains with specific DRC subunit deletions or rescued strains with tagged DRC subunits. Our results show that DRC7 is a central linker subunit that helps connect the N-DRC to the outer dynein arms. DRC11 is required for the assembly of DRC8, and DRC8/11 form a subcomplex in the proximal lobe of the linker domain that is required to form stable contacts to the neighboring B-tubule. Gold labeling of tagged subunits determines the precise locations of the previously ambiguous N terminus of DRC4 and C terminus of DRC5. DRC4 is now shown to contribute to the core scaffold of the N-DRC. Our results reveal the overall architecture of N-DRC, with the 3 subunits DRC1/2/4 forming a core complex that serves as the scaffold for the assembly of the "functional subunits," namely DRC3/5-8/11. These findings shed light on N-DRC assembly and its role in regulating flagellar beating.

Assessment of Parasite-Microglia Interactions In Vitro

An extensive number of parasites are able to invade the central nervous system (CNS) and cause a plethora of pathologies. Microglia, the resident macrophages of nervous tissue, are responsible for the protection against intruders, and therefore, they are an important line of defense against parasites. The phagocytosis is one of the weapons in the microglia's arsenal to fight against parasites. Several prior studies of microglia-parasite interactions and phagocytosis have been performed using microscopic techniques. As this methodology allows only a limited number of cells to be analyzed, additional approaches are required to provide a more complete picture of how microglia interact with these pathogens. Here, we describe a protocol based on flow cytometry to analyze single-celled parasites/microglia interactions in thousands of events in an accurate and reliable way. We use Trypanosoma brucei as a model organism, as it is a well-known parasite causing primary meningoencephalitis. However, the interaction/phagocytosis assay can be applied to other single-celled parasites as well.

Morphological changes, nitric oxide production, and phagocytosis are triggered in vitro in microglia by bloodstream forms of Trypanosoma brucei

The flagellated parasite Trypanosoma brucei is the causative agent of Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT). By a mechanism not well understood yet, trypanosomes enter the central nervous system (CNS), invade the brain parenchyma, and cause a fatal encephalopathy if is not treated. Trypanosomes are fast dividing organisms that, without any immune response, would kill the host in a short time. However, infected individuals survive either 6-12 months or more than 3 years for the acute and chronic forms, respectively. Thus, only when the brain defense collapses a lethal encephalopathy will occur. Here, we evaluated interactions between trypanosomes and microglial cells, which are the primary immune effector cells within the CNS. Using co-cultures of primary microglia and parasites, we found clear evidences of trypanosome phagocytosis by microglial cells. Microglia activation was also evident; analysis of its ultrastructure showed changes that have been reported in activated microglia undergoing oxidative stress caused by infections or degenerative diseases. Accordingly, an increase of the nitric oxide production was detected in supernatants of microglia/parasite co-cultures. Altogether, our results demonstrate that microglial cells respond to the presence of the parasite, leading to parasite's engulfment and elimination.

DRC2/CCDC65 is a central hub for assembly of the nexin-dynein regulatory complex and other regulators of ciliary and flagellar motility

DRC2 is a subunit of the nexin–dynein regulatory complex linked to primary ciliary dyskinesia. Little is known about the impact of drc2 mutations on axoneme composition and structure. We used proteomic and structural approaches to reveal that DRC2 coassembles with DRC1 to attach the N-DRC to the A-tubule and mediate interactions with other regulatory structures.

The nexin–dynein regulatory complex (N-DRC) plays a central role in the regulation of ciliary and flagellar motility. In most species, the N-DRC contains at least 11 subunits, but the specific function of each subunit is unknown. Mutations in three subunits (DRC1, DRC2/CCDC65, DRC4/GAS8) have been linked to defects in ciliary motility in humans and lead to a ciliopathy known as primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD). Here we characterize the biochemical, structural, and motility phenotypes of two mutations in the DRC2 gene of Chlamydomonas. Using high-resolution proteomic and structural approaches, we find that the C-terminal region of DRC2 is critical for the coassembly of DRC2 and DRC1 to form the base plate of N-DRC and its attachment to the outer doublet microtubule. Loss of DRC2 in drc2 mutants disrupts the assembly of several other N-DRC subunits and also destabilizes the assembly of several closely associated structures such as the inner dynein arms, the radial spokes, and the calmodulin- and spoke-associated complex. Our study provides new insights into the range of ciliary defects that can lead to PCD.

Insect stage-specific adenylate cyclases regulate social motility in African trypanosomes

Sophisticated systems for cell-cell communication enable unicellular microbes to act as multicellular entities capable of group-level behaviors that are not evident in individuals. These group behaviors influence microbe physiology, and the underlying signaling pathways are considered potential drug targets in microbial pathogens. Trypanosoma brucei is a protozoan parasite that causes substantial human suffering and economic hardship in some of the most impoverished regions of the world. T. brucei lives on host tissue surfaces during transmission through its tsetse fly vector, and cultivation on surfaces causes the parasites to assemble into multicellular communities in which individual cells coordinate their movements in response to external signals. This behavior is termed "social motility," based on its similarities with surface-induced social motility in bacteria, and it demonstrates that trypanosomes are capable of group-level behavior. Mechanisms governing T. brucei social motility are unknown. Here we report that a subset of receptor-type adenylate cyclases (ACs) in the trypanosome flagellum regulate social motility. RNA interference-mediated knockdown of adenylate cyclase 6 (AC6), or dual knockdown of AC1 and AC2, causes a hypersocial phenotype but has no discernible effect on individual cells in suspension culture. Mutation of the AC6 catalytic domain phenocopies AC6 knockdown, demonstrating that loss of adenylate cyclase activity is responsible for the phenotype. Notably, knockdown of other ACs did not affect social motility, indicating segregation of AC functions. These studies reveal interesting parallels in systems that control social behavior in trypanosomes and bacteria and provide insight into a feature of parasite biology that may be exploited for novel intervention strategies.

Motility and more: the flagellum of Trypanosoma brucei

Trypanosoma brucei is a pathogenic unicellular eukaryote that infects humans and other mammals in sub-Saharan Africa. A central feature of trypanosome biology is the single flagellum of the parasite, which is an essential and multifunctional organelle that facilitates cell propulsion, controls cell morphogenesis and directs cytokinesis. Moreover, the flagellar membrane is a specialized subdomain of the cell surface that mediates attachment to host tissues and harbours multiple virulence factors. In this Review, we discuss the structure, assembly and function of the trypanosome flagellum, including canonical roles in cell motility as well as novel and emerging roles in cell morphogenesis and host-parasite interactions.