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Keroack CD, Elsworth B, Tennessen JA, Paul AS, Hua R, Ramirez-Ramirez L, Ye S, Moreira CK, Meyers MJ, Zarringhalam K, Duraisingh MT. Comparative chemical genomics in Babesia species identifies the alkaline phosphatase PhoD as a determinant of antiparasitic resistance. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2312987121. [PMID: 38377214 PMCID: PMC10907312 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2312987121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Babesiosis is an emerging zoonosis and widely distributed veterinary infection caused by 100+ species of Babesia parasites. The diversity of Babesia parasites and the lack of specific drugs necessitate the discovery of broadly effective antibabesials. Here, we describe a comparative chemogenomics (CCG) pipeline for the identification of conserved targets. CCG relies on parallel in vitro evolution of resistance in independent populations of Babesia spp. (B. bovis and B. divergens). We identified a potent antibabesial, MMV019266, from the Malaria Box, and selected for resistance in two species of Babesia. After sequencing of multiple independently derived lines in the two species, we identified mutations in a membrane-bound metallodependent phosphatase (phoD). In both species, the mutations were found in the phoD-like phosphatase domain. Using reverse genetics, we validated that mutations in bdphoD confer resistance to MMV019266 in B. divergens. We have also demonstrated that BdPhoD localizes to the endomembrane system and partially with the apicoplast. Finally, conditional knockdown and constitutive overexpression of BdPhoD alter the sensitivity to MMV019266 in the parasite. Overexpression of BdPhoD results in increased sensitivity to the compound, while knockdown increases resistance, suggesting BdPhoD is a pro-susceptibility factor. Together, we have generated a robust pipeline for identification of resistance loci and identified BdPhoD as a resistance mechanism in Babesia species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline D. Keroack
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA02115
| | - Brendan Elsworth
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA02115
| | - Jacob A. Tennessen
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA02115
| | - Aditya S. Paul
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA02115
| | - Renee Hua
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA02115
| | - Luz Ramirez-Ramirez
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA02115
| | - Sida Ye
- Department of Mathematics, University of Massachusetts, Boston, MA02125
- Center for Personalized Cancer Therapy, University of Massachusetts, Boston, MA02125
| | - Cristina K. Moreira
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA02115
| | - Marvin J. Meyers
- Department of Chemistry, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO63103
| | - Kourosh Zarringhalam
- Department of Mathematics, University of Massachusetts, Boston, MA02125
- Center for Personalized Cancer Therapy, University of Massachusetts, Boston, MA02125
| | - Manoj T. Duraisingh
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA02115
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2
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Devarakonda PM, Sarmiento V, Heaslip AT. F-actin and myosin F control apicoplast elongation dynamics which drive apicoplast-centrosome association in Toxoplasma gondii. mBio 2023; 14:e0164023. [PMID: 37732764 PMCID: PMC10653800 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01640-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Toxoplasma gondii and most other parasites in the phylum Apicomplexa contain an apicoplast, a non-photosynthetic plastid organelle required for fatty acid, isoprenoid, iron-sulfur cluster, and heme synthesis. Perturbation of apicoplast function results in parasite death. Thus, parasite survival critically depends on two cellular processes: apicoplast division to ensure every daughter parasite inherits a single apicoplast, and trafficking of nuclear encoded proteins to the apicoplast. Despite the importance of these processes, there are significant knowledge gaps in regards to the molecular mechanisms which control these processes; this is particularly true for trafficking of nuclear-encoded apicoplast proteins. This study provides crucial new insight into the timing of apicoplast protein synthesis and trafficking to the apicoplast. In addition, this study demonstrates how apicoplast-centrosome association, a key step in the apicoplast division cycle, is controlled by the actomyosin cytoskeleton.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Valeria Sarmiento
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
| | - Aoife T. Heaslip
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
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3
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Devarakonda PM, Sarmiento V, Heaslip AT. F-actin and Myosin F control apicoplast elongation dynamics which drive apicoplast-centrosome association in Toxoplasma gondii. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.01.01.521342. [PMID: 36711828 PMCID: PMC9881852 DOI: 10.1101/2023.01.01.521342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii contains an essential plastid organelle called the apicoplast that is necessary for fatty acid, isoprenoid, and heme synthesis. Perturbations affecting apicoplast function or inheritance lead to parasite death. The apicoplast is a single copy organelle and therefore must be divided so that each daughter parasite inherits an apicoplast during cell division. In this study we identify new roles for F-actin and an unconventional myosin motor, TgMyoF, in this process. First, loss of TgMyoF and actin lead to an accumulation of apicoplast vesicles in the cytosol indicating a role for this actomyosin system in apicoplast protein trafficking or morphological integrity of the organelle. Second, live cell imaging reveals that during division the apicoplast is highly dynamic, exhibiting branched, U-shaped and linear morphologies that are dependent on TgMyoF and actin. In parasites where movement was inhibited by the depletion of TgMyoF, the apicoplast fails to associate with the parasite centrosomes. Thus, this study provides crucial new insight into mechanisms controlling apicoplast-centrosome association, a vital step in the apicoplast division cycle, which ensures that each daughter inherits a single apicoplast.
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4
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Keroack CD, Elsworth B, Tennessen JA, Paul AS, Hua R, Ramirez-Ramirez L, Ye S, Moreira CM, Meyers MJ, Zarringhalam K, Duraisingh MT. Comparative chemical genomics in Babesia species identifies the alkaline phosphatase phoD as a novel determinant of resistance. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.06.13.544849. [PMID: 37398106 PMCID: PMC10312741 DOI: 10.1101/2023.06.13.544849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
Babesiosis is an emerging zoonosis and widely distributed veterinary infection caused by 100+ species of Babesia parasites. The diversity of Babesia parasites, coupled with the lack of potent inhibitors necessitates the discovery of novel conserved druggable targets for the generation of broadly effective antibabesials. Here, we describe a comparative chemogenomics (CCG) pipeline for the identification of novel and conserved targets. CCG relies on parallel in vitro evolution of resistance in independent populations of evolutionarily-related Babesia spp. ( B. bovis and B. divergens ). We identified a potent antibabesial inhibitor from the Malaria Box, MMV019266. We were able to select for resistance to this compound in two species of Babesia, achieving 10-fold or greater resistance after ten weeks of intermittent selection. After sequencing of multiple independently derived lines in the two species, we identified mutations in a single conserved gene in both species: a membrane-bound metallodependent phosphatase (putatively named PhoD). In both species, the mutations were found in the phoD-like phosphatase domain, proximal to the predicted ligand binding site. Using reverse genetics, we validated that mutations in PhoD confer resistance to MMV019266. We have also demonstrated that PhoD localizes to the endomembrane system and partially with the apicoplast. Finally, conditional knockdown and constitutive overexpression of PhoD alter the sensitivity to MMV019266 in the parasite: overexpression of PhoD results in increased sensitivity to the compound, while knockdown increases resistance, suggesting PhoD is a resistance mechanism. Together, we have generated a robust pipeline for identification of resistance loci, and identified PhoD as a novel determinant of resistance in Babesia species. Highlights Use of two species for in vitro evolution identifies a high confidence locus associated with resistance Resistance mutation in phoD was validated using reverse genetics in B. divergens Perturbation of phoD using function genetics results in changes in the level of resistance to MMV019266Epitope tagging reveals localization to the ER/apicoplast, a conserved localization with a similar protein in diatoms Together, phoD is a novel resistance determinant in multiple Babesia spp .
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5
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Saggu GS. Apicoplast Journey and Its Essentiality as a Compartment for Malaria Parasite Survival. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:881825. [PMID: 35463632 PMCID: PMC9022174 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.881825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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6
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Zhang Y, Wang C, Jia H. Biogenesis and maintenance of the apicoplast in model apicomplexan parasites. Parasitol Int 2020; 81:102270. [PMID: 33321224 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2020.102270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The apicoplast is a non-photosynthetic relict plastid of Apicomplexa that evolved from a secondary symbiotic system. During its evolution, most of the genes derived from its alga ancestor were lost. Only genes involved in several valuable metabolic pathways, such as the synthesis of isoprenoid precursors, heme, and fatty acids, have been transferred to the host genome and retained to help these parasites adapt to a complex life cycle and various living environments. The biological function of an apicoplast is essential for most apicomplexan parasites. Considering their potential as drug targets, the metabolic functions of this symbiotic organelle have been intensively investigated through computational and biological means. Moreover, we know that not only organellar metabolic functions are linked with other organelles, but also their biogenesis processes have developed and evolved to tailor their biological functions and proper inheritance. Several distinct features have been found in the biogenesis process of apicoplasts. For example, the apicoplast borrows a dynamin-related protein (DrpA) from its host to implement organelle division. The autophagy system has also been repurposed for linking the apicoplast and centrosome during replication and the division process. However, many vital questions remain to be answered about how these parasites maintain and properly inherit this symbiotic organelle. Here we review our current knowledge about its biogenesis process and discuss several critical questions remaining to be answered in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zhang
- Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Bovine Diseases, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang Province 163319, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Haping Street 678, Nangang District, Harbin 150069, PR China
| | - Chunren Wang
- Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Bovine Diseases, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang Province 163319, PR China
| | - Honglin Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Haping Street 678, Nangang District, Harbin 150069, PR China.
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7
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Hicks JL, Lassadi I, Carpenter EF, Eno M, Vardakis A, Waller RF, Howe CJ, Nisbet RER. An essential pentatricopeptide repeat protein in the apicomplexan remnant chloroplast. Cell Microbiol 2019; 21:e13108. [PMID: 31454137 PMCID: PMC6899631 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The malaria parasite Plasmodium and other apicomplexans such as Toxoplasma evolved from photosynthetic organisms and contain an essential, remnant plastid termed the apicoplast. Transcription of the apicoplast genome is polycistronic with extensive RNA processing. Yet little is known about the mechanism of apicoplast RNA processing. In plants, chloroplast RNA processing is controlled by multiple pentatricopeptide repeat (PPR) proteins. Here, we identify the single apicoplast PPR protein, PPR1. We show that the protein is essential and that it binds to RNA motifs corresponding with previously characterized processing sites. Additionally, PPR1 shields RNA transcripts from ribonuclease degradation. This is the first characterization of a PPR protein from a nonphotosynthetic plastid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna L. Hicks
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Present address:
Faculty of ScienceWaikato UniversityHamiltonNew Zealand
| | - Imen Lassadi
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | | | - Madeleine Eno
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | | | - Ross F. Waller
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
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8
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Mathur V, Kolísko M, Hehenberger E, Irwin NAT, Leander BS, Kristmundsson Á, Freeman MA, Keeling PJ. Multiple Independent Origins of Apicomplexan-Like Parasites. Curr Biol 2019; 29:2936-2941.e5. [PMID: 31422883 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2019.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The apicomplexans are a group of obligate animal pathogens that include Plasmodium (malaria), Toxoplasma (toxoplasmosis), and Cryptosporidium (cryptosporidiosis) [1]. They are an extremely diverse and specious group but are nevertheless united by a distinctive suite of cytoskeletal and secretory structures related to infection, called the apical complex, which is used to recognize and gain entry into animal host cells. The apicomplexans are also known to have evolved from free-living photosynthetic ancestors and retain a relict plastid (the apicoplast), which is non-photosynthetic but houses a number of other essential metabolic pathways [2]. Their closest relatives include a mix of both photosynthetic algae (chromerids) and non-photosynthetic microbial predators (colpodellids) [3]. Genomic analyses of these free-living relatives have revealed a great deal about how the alga-parasite transition may have taken place, as well as origins of parasitism more generally [4]. Here, we show that, despite the surprisingly complex origin of apicomplexans from algae, this transition actually occurred at least three times independently. Using single-cell genomics and transcriptomics from diverse uncultivated parasites, we find that two genera previously classified within the Apicomplexa, Piridium and Platyproteum, form separately branching lineages in phylogenomic analyses. Both retain cryptic plastids with genomic and metabolic features convergent with apicomplexans. These findings suggest a predilection in this lineage for both the convergent loss of photosynthesis and transition to parasitism, resulting in multiple lineages of superficially similar animal parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Varsha Mathur
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada.
| | - Martin Kolísko
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Acad. Sci., Branišovská 31, České Budějovice 370 05, Czech Republic
| | - Elisabeth Hehenberger
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; GEOMAR - Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research, Duesternbrooker Weg 20, 24105 Kiel, Germany
| | - Nicholas A T Irwin
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Brian S Leander
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Árni Kristmundsson
- Institute for Experimental Pathology, University of Iceland, Keldur. Keldnavegur 3, 112 Reykjavík, Iceland
| | - Mark A Freeman
- Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, PO Box 334, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies
| | - Patrick J Keeling
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
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9
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Roberts AD, Nair SC, Guerra AJ, Prigge ST. Development of a conditional localization approach to control apicoplast protein trafficking in malaria parasites. Traffic 2019; 20:571-582. [PMID: 31094037 DOI: 10.1111/tra.12656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Revised: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Secretory proteins are of particular importance to apicomplexan parasites and comprise over 15% of the genomes of the human pathogens that cause diseases like malaria, toxoplasmosis and babesiosis as well as other diseases of agricultural significance. Here, we developed an approach that allows us to control the trafficking destination of secretory proteins in the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Based on the unique structural requirements of apicoplast transit peptides, we designed three conditional localization domains (CLD1, 2 and 3) that can be used to control protein trafficking via the addition of a cell permeant ligand. Studies comparing the trafficking dynamics of each CLD show that CLD2 has the most optimal trafficking efficiency. To validate this system, we tested whether CLD2 could conditionally localize a biotin ligase called holocarboxylase synthetase 1 (HCS1) without interfering with the function of the enzyme. In a parasite line expressing CLD2-HCS1, we were able to control protein biotinylation in the apicoplast in a ligand-dependent manner, demonstrating the full functionality of the CLD tool. We have developed and validated a novel molecular tool that may be used in future studies to help elucidate the function of secretory proteins in malaria parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleah D Roberts
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Sethu C Nair
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Alfredo J Guerra
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Sean T Prigge
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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10
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Boucher MJ, Ghosh S, Zhang L, Lal A, Jang SW, Ju A, Zhang S, Wang X, Ralph SA, Zou J, Elias JE, Yeh E. Integrative proteomics and bioinformatic prediction enable a high-confidence apicoplast proteome in malaria parasites. PLoS Biol 2018; 16:e2005895. [PMID: 30212465 PMCID: PMC6155542 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2005895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Revised: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 08/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria parasites (Plasmodium spp.) and related apicomplexan pathogens contain a nonphotosynthetic plastid called the apicoplast. Derived from an unusual secondary eukaryote-eukaryote endosymbiosis, the apicoplast is a fascinating organelle whose function and biogenesis rely on a complex amalgamation of bacterial and algal pathways. Because these pathways are distinct from the human host, the apicoplast is an excellent source of novel antimalarial targets. Despite its biomedical importance and evolutionary significance, the absence of a reliable apicoplast proteome has limited most studies to the handful of pathways identified by homology to bacteria or primary chloroplasts, precluding our ability to study the most novel apicoplast pathways. Here, we combine proximity biotinylation-based proteomics (BioID) and a new machine learning algorithm to generate a high-confidence apicoplast proteome consisting of 346 proteins. Critically, the high accuracy of this proteome significantly outperforms previous prediction-based methods and extends beyond other BioID studies of unique parasite compartments. Half of identified proteins have unknown function, and 77% are predicted to be important for normal blood-stage growth. We validate the apicoplast localization of a subset of novel proteins and show that an ATP-binding cassette protein ABCF1 is essential for blood-stage survival and plays a previously unknown role in apicoplast biogenesis. These findings indicate critical organellar functions for newly discovered apicoplast proteins. The apicoplast proteome will be an important resource for elucidating unique pathways derived from secondary endosymbiosis and prioritizing antimalarial drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J. Boucher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Sreejoyee Ghosh
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Lichao Zhang
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Avantika Lal
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Se Won Jang
- Department of Computer Science, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - An Ju
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Shuying Zhang
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Xinzi Wang
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Stuart A. Ralph
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic, Australia
| | - James Zou
- Department of Biomedical Data Science, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Joshua E. Elias
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Ellen Yeh
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, California, United States of America
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11
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Sharma D, Soni R, Rai P, Sharma B, Bhatt TK. Relict plastidic metabolic process as a potential therapeutic target. Drug Discov Today 2017; 23:134-140. [PMID: 28987288 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2017.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Revised: 09/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The alignment of the evolutionary history of parasites with that of plants provides a different panorama in the drug development process. The housing of different metabolic processes, essential for parasite survival, adds to the indispensability of the apicoplast. The different pathways responsible for fueling the apicoplast and parasite offer a myriad of proteins responsible for the apicoplast function. The studies emphasizing the target-based approaches might help in the discovery of antimalarials. The different putative drug targets and their roles are highlighted. In addition, the origin of the apicoplast and metabolic processes are reviewed and the different drugs acting upon the enzymes of the apicoplast are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drista Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Rani Soni
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Praveen Rai
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Bhaskar Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India
| | - Tarun Kumar Bhatt
- Department of Biotechnology, Central University of Rajasthan, NH-8, Bandarsindri, Rajasthan 305801, India.
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12
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Del Carmen Terrón M, González-Camacho F, González LM, Luque D, Montero E. Ultrastructure of the Babesia divergens free merozoite. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2016; 7:1274-1279. [PMID: 27430965 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2016.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Revised: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 07/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The invasive form of the apicomplexan parasite Babesia divergens, the free merozoite, invades the erythrocytes of host vertebrates, leading to significant pathology. Although invasion is an active process critical for parasite survival, it is not yet entirely understood. Using techniques to isolate the viable free merozoite, as well as electron microscopy, we undertook a detailed morphological study and explored the sub-cellular structure of the invasive B. divergens free merozoite after it had left the host cell. We examined characteristic apicomplexan features such as the apicoplast, the inner and discontinuous double membrane complex, and the apical complex; some aspects of erythrocyte entry by B. divergens were also defined by electron microscopy. This study adds to our understanding of B. divergens free merozoites and their invasion of human erythrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Del Carmen Terrón
- Servicio de Microscopia Electrónica y Confocal, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Ctra. Majadahonda-Pozuelo Km 2.2, 28220 Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Fernando González-Camacho
- Servicio de Microscopia Electrónica y Confocal, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Ctra. Majadahonda-Pozuelo Km 2.2, 28220 Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Luis Miguel González
- Servicio de Parasitología, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Ctra. Majadahoda-Pozuelo Km 2.2, 28220 Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Daniel Luque
- Servicio de Microscopia Electrónica y Confocal, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Ctra. Majadahonda-Pozuelo Km 2.2, 28220 Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Estrella Montero
- Servicio de Parasitología, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Ctra. Majadahoda-Pozuelo Km 2.2, 28220 Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain.
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13
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Arabidopsis AZI1 family proteins mediate signal mobilization for systemic defence priming. Nat Commun 2015. [PMID: 26203923 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms8658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Priming is a major mechanism behind the immunological 'memory' observed during two key plant systemic defences: systemic acquired resistance (SAR) and induced systemic resistance (ISR). Lipid-derived azelaic acid (AZA) is a mobile priming signal. Here, we show that the lipid transfer protein (LTP)-like AZI1 and its closest paralog EARLI1 are necessary for SAR, ISR and the systemic movement and uptake of AZA in Arabidopsis. Imaging and fractionation studies indicate that AZI1 and EARLI1 localize to expected places for lipid exchange/movement to occur. These are the ER/plasmodesmata, chloroplast outer envelopes and membrane contact sites between them. Furthermore, these LTP-like proteins form complexes and act at the site of SAR establishment. The plastid targeting of AZI1 and AZI1 paralogs occurs through a mechanism that may enable/facilitate their roles in signal mobilization.
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Nagano S, Lin TY, Edula JR, Heddle JG. Unique features of apicoplast DNA gyrases from Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium falciparum. BMC Bioinformatics 2014; 15:416. [PMID: 25523502 PMCID: PMC4297366 DOI: 10.1186/s12859-014-0416-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2014] [Accepted: 12/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND DNA gyrase, an enzyme once thought to be unique to bacteria, is also found in some eukaryotic plastids including the apicoplast of Apicomplexa such as Plasmodium falciparum and Toxoplasma gondii which are important disease-causing organisms. DNA gyrase is an excellent target for antibacterial drugs, yet such antibacterials seem ineffective against Apicomplexa. Characterisation of the apicoplast gyrases would be a useful step towards understanding why this should be so. While purification of active apicoplast gyrase has proved impossible to date, in silico analyses have allowed us to discover differences in the apicoplast proteins. The resulting predicted structural and functional differences will be a first step towards development of apicoplast-gyrase specific inhibitors. RESULTS We have carried out sequence analysis and structural predictions of the enzymes from the two species and find that P. falciparum gyrase lacks a GyrA box, but T. gondii may retain one. All proteins contained signal/transport peptides for localization to the apicoplast but T. gondii Gyrase B protein lacks the expected hydrophobic region. The most significant difference is in the GyrA C-terminal domain: While the cores of the proteins, including DNA binding and cleavage regions are essentially unchanged, both apicoplast gyrase A proteins have C-terminal domains that are significantly larger than bacterial counterparts and are predicted to have different structures. CONCLUSION The apicoplast gyrases differ significantly from bacterial gyrases while retaining similar core domains. T. gondii Gyrase B may have an unusual or inefficient mechanism of localisation to the apicoplast. P.falciparum gyrase, lacks a GyrA box and is therefore likely to be inefficient in DNA supercoiling. The C-terminal domains of both apicoplast Gyrase A proteins diverge significantly from the bacterial proteins. We predict that an additional structural element is present in the C-terminal domain of both apicoplast Gyrase A proteins, including the possibility of a β-pinwheel with a non-canonical number of blades. These differences undoubtedly will affect the DNA supercoiling mechanism and have perhaps evolved to compensate for the lack of Topoisomerase IV in the apicoplast. These data will be useful first step towards further characterisation and development of inhibitors for apicoplast gyrases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soshichiro Nagano
- Heddle Initiative Research Unit, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan.
| | - Ting-Yu Lin
- Heddle Initiative Research Unit, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan.
| | - Jyotheeswara Reddy Edula
- Heddle Initiative Research Unit, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan. .,Current address: Department of Molecular Protozoology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases (RIMD), Osaka University, 3-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan.
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Tomlins AM, Ben-Rached F, Williams RAM, Proto WR, Coppens I, Ruch U, Gilberger TW, Coombs GH, Mottram JC, Müller S, Langsley G. Plasmodium falciparumATG8 implicated in both autophagy and apicoplast formation. Autophagy 2014; 9:1540-52. [DOI: 10.4161/auto.25832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
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Deponte M, Hoppe HC, Lee MC, Maier AG, Richard D, Rug M, Spielmann T, Przyborski JM. Wherever I may roam: Protein and membrane trafficking in P. falciparum-infected red blood cells. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2012; 186:95-116. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2012.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2012] [Revised: 09/21/2012] [Accepted: 09/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Banerjee T, Singh RR, Gupta S, Surolia A, Surolia N. 15-deoxyspergualin hinders physical interaction between basic residues of transit peptide in PfENR and Hsp70-1. IUBMB Life 2012; 64:99-107. [DOI: 10.1002/iub.583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Gallagher JR, Matthews KA, Prigge ST. Plasmodium falciparum apicoplast transit peptides are unstructured in vitro and during apicoplast import. Traffic 2011; 12:1124-38. [PMID: 21668595 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0854.2011.01232.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Trafficking of soluble proteins to the apicoplast in Plasmodium falciparum is determined by an N-terminal transit peptide (TP) which is necessary and sufficient for apicoplast import. Apicoplast precursor proteins are synthesized at the rough endoplasmic reticulum, but are then specifically sorted from other proteins in the secretory pathway. The mechanism of TP recognition is presently unknown. Apicoplast TPs do not contain a conserved sequence motif; therefore, we asked whether they contain an essential structural motif. Using nuclear magnetic resonance to study a model TP from acyl carrier protein, we found a short, low-occupancy helix, but the TP was otherwise disordered. Using an in vivo localization assay, we blocked TP secondary structure by proline mutagenesis, but found robust apicoplast localization. Alternatively, we increased the helical content of the TP through mutation while maintaining established TP characteristics. Apicoplast import was disrupted in a helical mutant TP, but import was then restored by the further addition of a single proline. We conclude that structure in the TP interferes with apicoplast import, and therefore TPs are functionally disordered. These results provide an explanation for the amino acid bias observed in apicoplast TPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R Gallagher
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Room E5132, 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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Abstract
Background As an obligate intracellular parasite, Apicomplexa interacts with the host in the special living environment, competing for energy and nutrients from the host cells by manipulating the host metabolism. Previous studies of host-parasite interaction mainly focused on using cellular and biochemical methods to investigate molecular functions in metabolic pathways of parasite infected hosts. Computational approaches taking advantage of high-throughput biological data and topology of metabolic pathways have a great potential in revealing the details and mechanism of parasites-to-host interactions. A new analytical method was designed in this work to study host-parasite interactions in human cells infected with Plasmodium falciparum and Cryptosporidium parvum. Results We introduced a new method that analyzes the host metabolic pathways in divided parts: host specific subpathways and host-parasite common subpathways. Upon analysis on gene expression data from cells infected by Plasmodium falciparum or Cryptosporidium parvum, we found: (i) six host-parasite common subpathways and four host specific subpathways were significantly altered in plasmodium infected human cells; (ii) plasmodium utilized fatty acid biosynthesis and elongation, and Pantothenate and CoA biosynthesis to obtain nutrients from host environment; (iii) in Cryptosporidium parvum infected cells, most of the host-parasite common enzymes were down-regulated, whereas the host specific enzymes up-regulated; (iv) the down-regulation of common subpathways in host cells might be caused by competition for the substrates and up-regulation of host specific subpathways may be stimulated by parasite infection. Conclusion Results demonstrated a significantly coordinated expression pattern between the two groups of subpathways. The method helped expose the impact of parasite infection on host cell metabolism, which was previously concealed in the pathway enrichment analysis. Our approach revealed detailed subpathways and metabolic information are important to the symbiosis in two kinds of the apicomplex parasites, and highlighted its significance in research and understanding of parasite-host interactions.
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Seeber F, Soldati-Favre D. Metabolic Pathways in the Apicoplast of Apicomplexa. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2010; 281:161-228. [DOI: 10.1016/s1937-6448(10)81005-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
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Suggestive evidence for Darwinian Selection against asparagine-linked glycans of Plasmodium falciparum and Toxoplasma gondii. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2009; 9:228-41. [PMID: 19783771 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00197-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
We are interested in asparagine-linked glycans (N-glycans) of Plasmodium falciparum and Toxoplasma gondii, because their N-glycan structures have been controversial and because we hypothesize that there might be selection against N-glycans in nucleus-encoded proteins that must pass through the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) prior to threading into the apicoplast. In support of our hypothesis, we observed the following. First, in protists with apicoplasts, there is extensive secondary loss of Alg enzymes that make lipid-linked precursors to N-glycans. Theileria makes no N-glycans, and Plasmodium makes a severely truncated N-glycan precursor composed of one or two GlcNAc residues. Second, secreted proteins of Toxoplasma, which uses its own 10-sugar precursor (Glc(3)Man(5)GlcNAc(2)) and the host 14-sugar precursor (Glc(3)Man(9)GlcNAc(2)) to make N-glycans, have very few sites for N glycosylation, and there is additional selection against N-glycan sites in its apicoplast-targeted proteins. Third, while the GlcNAc-binding Griffonia simplicifolia lectin II labels ER, rhoptries, and surface of plasmodia, there is no apicoplast labeling. Similarly, the antiretroviral lectin cyanovirin-N, which binds to N-glycans of Toxoplasma, labels ER and rhoptries, but there is no apicoplast labeling. We conclude that possible selection against N-glycans in protists with apicoplasts occurs by eliminating N-glycans (Theileria), reducing their length (Plasmodium), or reducing the number of N-glycan sites (Toxoplasma). In addition, occupation of N-glycan sites is markedly reduced in apicoplast proteins versus some secretory proteins in both Plasmodium and Toxoplasma.
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Lim L, Kalanon M, McFadden GI. New proteins in the apicoplast membranes: time to rethink apicoplast protein targeting. Trends Parasitol 2009; 25:197-200. [PMID: 19346163 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2009.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2008] [Revised: 01/30/2009] [Accepted: 02/04/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Several apicomplexan parasites harbour an essential plastid known as the apicoplast. Apicoplasts import proteins and metabolites for several biological functions, but how import is achieved is largely unknown. Two recent reports have identified novel proteins in the apicoplast membranes, providing new perspectives on how proteins traffic to this organelle. The first report contributes to a newly recognized apicoplast-targeting pathway for membrane proteins, and the second identifies the first member of the protein-translocation complex in apicoplasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liting Lim
- School of Botany, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic 3010, Australia
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Fauquenoy S, Morelle W, Hovasse A, Bednarczyk A, Slomianny C, Schaeffer C, Van Dorsselaer A, Tomavo S. Proteomics and Glycomics Analyses of N-Glycosylated Structures Involved in Toxoplasma gondii-Host Cell Interactions. Mol Cell Proteomics 2008; 7:891-910. [DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m700391-mcp200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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Abstract
The relict plastid, or apicoplast, of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum is an essential organelle and a promising drug target. Most apicoplast proteins are nuclear encoded and post-translationally targeted into the organelle using a bipartite N-terminal extension, consisting of a typical endomembrane signal peptide and a plant-like transit peptide. Apicoplast protein targeting commences through the parasite's secretory pathway. We review recent experimental evidence suggesting that the apicoplast resides in the mainstream endomembrane system proximal to the Golgi. Further, we explore possible mechanisms for translocation of nuclear-encoded apicoplast proteins across the four bounding membranes. Recent insights into the composition of the transit peptide and how it is cleaved and degraded after use are also examined. Characterization of apicoplast targeting has not only shed light on how this group of parasites mediate intracellular protein trafficking events but also it has helped identify new targets for therapeutics. The distinctive leader sequences of apicoplast proteins make them readily identifiable, allowing assembly of a virtual organelle metabolome from the genome. Such analysis has lead to the identification of several biochemical pathways that are absent from the human host and thus represent novel therapeutic targets for parasitic infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Tonkin
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Melbourne, Victoria 3050, Australia
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