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Parrott AC, Coburn PS, Miller FC, LaGrow AL, Mursalin MH, Callegan MC. The Role of CCL Chemokines in Experimental Staphylococcus aureus Endophthalmitis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2024; 65:12. [PMID: 38842829 PMCID: PMC11160947 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.65.6.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose To test the hypothesis that (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2) and CCL3 impact retinal function decline and inflammation during Staphylococcus aureus endophthalmitis. Methods Experimental endophthalmitis was initiated by intravitreal injection of 5000 colony-forming units of S. aureus into the eyes of C57BL/6J, CCL2-/-, or CCL3-/- mice. At 12 and 24 hours post-infection, retinal function, bacterial load, and myeloperoxidase levels were quantified. Results During S. aureus endophthalmitis, we observed a significant improvement in retinal function in CCL2-/- mice relative to C57BL/6J mice at 12 hours but not at 24 hours. In CCL3-/- mice, retinal function was significantly improved relative to C57BL/6J mice at 12 and 24 hours. The absence of CCL2 did not alter intraocular S. aureus intraocular concentrations. However, CCL3-/- mice had significantly lower intraocular S. aureus at 12 hours but not at 24 hours. No difference in myeloperoxidase levels was observed between C57BL/6J and CCL2-/- mice at 12 hours. CCL3-/- mice had almost no myeloperoxidase at 12 hours. At 24 hours, increased myeloperoxidase was observed in CCL2-/- and CCL3-/- mice relative to C57BL/6J mice. Conclusions Although the absence of CCL2 resulted in improved retinal function retention at 12 hours, CCL3 deficiency resulted in improved retinal function at 12 and 24 hours. CCL3 deficiency, but not CCL2 deficiency, resulted in almost no inflammation at 12 hours. However, at 24 hours, the absence of CCL2 or CCL3 resulted in significantly increased inflammation. These results suggest that, although both CCL2 and CCL3 impact intraocular infection outcomes, CCL3 may have a more significant impact in S. aureus endophthalmitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron C. Parrott
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States
| | - Phillip S. Coburn
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States
| | - Frederick C. Miller
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States
- Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States
| | - Austin L. LaGrow
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States
| | - Md Huzzatul Mursalin
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States
| | - Michelle C. Callegan
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States
- Dean McGee Eye Institute, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States
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2
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Ahmad Z, Singh S, Lee TJ, Sharma A, Lydic TA, Giri S, Kumar A. Untargeted and temporal analysis of retinal lipidome in bacterial endophthalmitis. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat 2024; 171:106806. [PMID: 38185280 PMCID: PMC10939753 DOI: 10.1016/j.prostaglandins.2023.106806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
Bacterial endophthalmitis is a blinding infectious disease typically acquired during ocular surgery. We previously reported significant alterations in retinal metabolism during Staphylococcus (S) aureus endophthalmitis. However, the changes in retinal lipid composition during endophthalmitis are unknown. Here, using a mouse model of S. aureus endophthalmitis and an untargeted lipidomic approach, we comprehensively analyzed temporal alterations in total lipids and oxylipin in retina. Our data showed a time-dependent increase in the levels of lipid classes, sphingolipids, glycerolipids, sterols, and non-esterified fatty acids, whereas levels of phospholipids decreased. Among lipid subclasses, phosphatidylcholine decreased over time. The oxylipin analysis revealed increased prostaglandin-E2, hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids, docosahexaenoic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, and α-linolenic acid. In-vitro studies using mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages showed increased lipid droplets and lipid-peroxide formation in response to S. aureus infection. Collectively, these findings suggest that S. aureus-infection alters the retinal lipid profile, which may contribute to the pathogenesis of bacterial endophthalmitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeeshan Ahmad
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences/ Kresge Eye Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Sukhvinder Singh
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences/ Kresge Eye Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Tae Jin Lee
- Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA. 4 Department of Ophthalmology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA
| | - Ashok Sharma
- Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA. 4 Department of Ophthalmology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA
| | - Todd A Lydic
- Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Shailendra Giri
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Ashok Kumar
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences/ Kresge Eye Institute, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA; Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA.
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3
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Romanowski EG, Brothers KM, Calvario RC, Stella NA, Kim T, Elsayed M, Kadouri DE, Shanks RMQ. Predatory bacteria prevent the proliferation of intraocular Serratia marcescens and fluoroquinolone-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. MICROBIOLOGY (READING, ENGLAND) 2024; 170:001433. [PMID: 38358321 PMCID: PMC10924457 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.001433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
Endogenous endophthalmitis caused by Gram-negative bacteria is an intra-ocular infection that can rapidly progress to irreversible loss of vision. While most endophthalmitis isolates are susceptible to antibiotic therapy, the emergence of resistant bacteria necessitates alternative approaches to combat intraocular bacterial proliferation. In this study the ability of predatory bacteria to limit intraocular growth of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Serratia marcescens, and Staphylococcus aureus was evaluated in a New Zealand white rabbit endophthalmitis prevention model. Predatory bacteria Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus and Micavibrio aeruginosavorus were able to reduce proliferation of keratitis isolates of P. aeruginosa and to a lesser extent S. marcescens. However, it was not able to significantly reduce the number of intraocular S. aureus, which is not a productive prey for these predatory bacteria, suggesting that the inhibitory effect on P. aeruginosa and S. marcescens requires active predation rather than an antimicrobial immune response. Similarly, UV-inactivated B. bacteriovorus were unable to prevent proliferation of P. aeruginosa. Together, these data indicate in vivo inhibition of Gram-negative bacteria proliferation within the intra-ocular environment by predatory bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric G. Romanowski
- Charles T. Campbell Laboratory of Ophthalmic Microbiology, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Kimberly M. Brothers
- Charles T. Campbell Laboratory of Ophthalmic Microbiology, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Rachel C. Calvario
- Charles T. Campbell Laboratory of Ophthalmic Microbiology, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Nicholas A. Stella
- Charles T. Campbell Laboratory of Ophthalmic Microbiology, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Tami Kim
- Department of Oral Biology, Rutgers School of Dental Medicine, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Mennat Elsayed
- Department of Oral Biology, Rutgers School of Dental Medicine, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Daniel E. Kadouri
- Department of Oral Biology, Rutgers School of Dental Medicine, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Robert M. Q. Shanks
- Charles T. Campbell Laboratory of Ophthalmic Microbiology, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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4
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Das S, Ahmad Z, Singh S, Singh S, Wright RE, Giri S, Kumar A. Oral administration of S-nitroso-L-glutathione (GSNO) provides anti-inflammatory and cytoprotective effects during ocular bacterial infections. Cell Mol Life Sci 2023; 80:309. [PMID: 37770649 PMCID: PMC11072052 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-023-04963-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 08/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/30/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial endophthalmitis is a severe complication of eye surgeries that can lead to vision loss. Current treatment involves intravitreal antibiotic injections that control bacterial growth but not inflammation. To identify newer therapeutic targets to promote inflammation resolution in endophthalmitis, we recently employed an untargeted metabolomics approach. This led to the discovery that the levels of S-nitroso-L-glutathione (GSNO) were significantly reduced in an experimental murine Staphylococcus aureus (SA) endophthalmitis model. In this study, we tested the hypothesis whether GSNO supplementation via different routes (oral, intravitreal) provides protection during bacterial endophthalmitis. Our results show that prophylactic administration of GSNO via intravitreal injections ameliorated SA endophthalmitis. Therapeutically, oral administration of GSNO was found to be most effective in reducing intraocular inflammation and bacterial burden. Moreover, oral GSNO treatment synergized with intravitreal antibiotic injections in reducing the severity of endophthalmitis. Furthermore, in vitro experiments using cultured human retinal Muller glia and retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells showed that GSNO treatment reduced SA-induced inflammatory mediators and cell death. Notably, both in-vivo and ex-vivo data showed that GSNO strengthened the outer blood-retinal barrier during endophthalmitis. Collectively, our study demonstrates GSNO as a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of intraocular infections due to its dual anti-inflammatory and cytoprotective properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susmita Das
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 4717 St. Antoine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| | - Zeeshan Ahmad
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 4717 St. Antoine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| | - Sneha Singh
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 4717 St. Antoine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| | - Sukhvinder Singh
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 4717 St. Antoine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| | - Robert Emery Wright
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 4717 St. Antoine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA
| | - Shailendra Giri
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Ashok Kumar
- Department of Ophthalmology, Visual and Anatomical Sciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 4717 St. Antoine, Detroit, MI, 48201, USA.
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA.
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5
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Romanowski EG, Brothers KM, Calvario RC, Stella NA, Kim T, Elsayed M, Kadouri DE, Shanks RMQ. Intra-ocular Predation of Fluoroquinolone-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Serratia marcescens by Predatory Bacteria. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.09.17.558130. [PMID: 37745563 PMCID: PMC10516018 DOI: 10.1101/2023.09.17.558130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Endogenous endophthalmitis caused by Gram-negative bacteria is an intra-ocular infection that can rapidly progress to irreversible loss of vision. While most endophthalmitis isolates are susceptible to antibiotic therapy, the emergence of resistant bacteria necessitates alternative approaches to combat intraocular bacterial proliferation. In this study the ability of predatory bacteria to limit intraocular growth of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Serratia marcescens, and Staphylococcus aureus was evaluated in a New Zealand White rabbit endophthalmitis prevention model. Predatory bacteria Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus and Micavibrio aeruginosavorus were able to reduce proliferation of keratitis isolates of P. aeruginosa and S. marcescens. However, it was not able to significantly reduce S. aureus, which is not a productive prey for these predatory bacteria, suggesting that the inhibitory effect on P. aeruginosa requires active predation rather than an antimicrobial immune response. Similarly, UV-inactivated B. bacteriovorus were unable to prevent proliferation of P. aeruginosa. Together, these data suggest in vivo predation of Gram-negative bacteria within the intra-ocular environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric G Romanowski
- Charles T. Campbell Laboratory of Ophthalmic Microbiology, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Kimberly M Brothers
- Charles T. Campbell Laboratory of Ophthalmic Microbiology, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Rachel C Calvario
- Charles T. Campbell Laboratory of Ophthalmic Microbiology, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Nicholas A Stella
- Charles T. Campbell Laboratory of Ophthalmic Microbiology, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Tami Kim
- Department of Oral Biology, Rutgers School of Dental Medicine, Newark, NJ
| | - Mennat Elsayed
- Department of Oral Biology, Rutgers School of Dental Medicine, Newark, NJ
| | - Daniel E Kadouri
- Department of Oral Biology, Rutgers School of Dental Medicine, Newark, NJ
| | - Robert M Q Shanks
- Charles T. Campbell Laboratory of Ophthalmic Microbiology, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
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Dempsey MP, Conrady CD. The Host-Pathogen Interplay: A Tale of Two Stories within the Cornea and Posterior Segment. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2074. [PMID: 37630634 PMCID: PMC10460047 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11082074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Ocular infectious diseases are an important cause of potentially preventable vision loss and blindness. In the following manuscript, we will review ocular immunology and the pathogenesis of herpesviruses and Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections of the cornea and posterior segment. We will highlight areas of future research and what is currently known to promote bench-to-bedside discoveries to improve clinical outcomes of these debilitating ocular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P. Dempsey
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Truhlsen Eye Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68105, USA
| | - Christopher D. Conrady
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Truhlsen Eye Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68105, USA
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
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Butyrate Ameliorates Intraocular Bacterial Infection by Promoting Autophagy and Attenuating the Inflammatory Response. Infect Immun 2023; 91:e0025222. [PMID: 36515524 PMCID: PMC9872663 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00252-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite an important link between the gut and ocular health, the role of the gut-eye axis remains elusive in ocular infections. In this study, we investigated the role of butyrate, a gut microbial metabolite, in the pathobiology of intraocular bacterial (Staphylococcus aureus) infection, endophthalmitis. We found that intravitreal administration of butyrate derivatives, sodium butyrate (NaB), or phenylbutyrate (PBA) reduced intraocular bacterial growth and retinal inflammatory response. The ocular tissue architecture and retinal function were preserved in butyrate-treated eyes. In cultured mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) and human retinal Müller glia, NaB or PBA treatment reduced S. aureus-induced inflammatory response by inhibiting NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome. However, in vivo data showed NLRP3-independent effects of butyrate. The butyrate-treated mouse retina and cells exhibited induced expression of antimicrobial molecules CRAMP (LL37) and S100A7/A8, resulting in increased bacterial phagocytosis and killing. Moreover, butyrate treatment enhanced AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-dependent autophagy and promoted the co-localization of CRAMP in autophagosomes, indicating autophagy-mediated bacterial killing. Furthermore, pharmacological inhibition of autophagy in mice revealed its role in butyrate-mediated protection. Finally, butyrate exhibited synergy with antibiotic in promoting endophthalmitis resolution. Collectively, our study demonstrated the protective mechanisms of butyrate in ameliorating bacterial endophthalmitis. Therefore, butyrate derivatives could be explored as immunomodulatory and anti-bacterial therapeutics to improve visual outcomes in ocular bacterial infections.
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Palevski D, Ben-David G, Weinberger Y, Haj Daood R, Fernández JA, Budnik I, Levy-Mendelovich S, Kenet G, Nisgav Y, Weinberger D, Griffin JH, Livnat T. 3K3A-Activated Protein C Prevents Microglia Activation, Inhibits NLRP3 Inflammasome and Limits Ocular Inflammation. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232214196. [PMID: 36430674 PMCID: PMC9694680 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232214196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
3K3A-Activated Protein C (APC) is a recombinant variant of the physiological anticoagulant APC with pleiotropic cytoprotective properties albeit without the bleeding risks. The anti-inflammatory activities of 3K3A-APC were demonstrated in multiple preclinical injury models, including various neurological disorders. We determined the ability of 3K3A-APC to inhibit ocular inflammation in a murine model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced uveitis. Leukocyte recruitment, microglia activation, NLRP3 inflammasome and IL-1β levels were assessed using flow cytometry, retinal cryosection histology, retinal flatmount immunohistochemistry and vascular imaging, with and without 3K3A-APC treatment. LPS triggered robust inflammatory cell recruitment in the posterior chamber. The 3K3A-APC treatment significantly decreased leukocyte numbers and inhibited leukocyte extravasation from blood vessels into the retinal parenchyma to a level similar to controls. Resident microglia, which underwent an inflammatory transition following LPS injection, remained quiescent in eyes treated with 3K3A-APC. An inflammation-associated increase in retinal thickness, observed in LPS-injected eyes, was diminished by 3K3A-APC treatment, suggesting its clinical relevancy. Finally, 3K3A-APC treatment inhibited inflammasome activation, determined by lower levels of NLRP3 and its downstream effector IL-1β. Our results highlight the anti-inflammatory properties of 3K3A-APC in ocular inflammation and suggest its potential use as a novel treatment for retinal diseases associated with inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dahlia Palevski
- Rabin Medical Center, Ophthalmology Department and Laboratory of Eye Research, Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Petah-Tikva 49100, Israel
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 6997801, Israel
| | - Gil Ben-David
- Rabin Medical Center, Ophthalmology Department and Laboratory of Eye Research, Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Petah-Tikva 49100, Israel
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 6997801, Israel
| | - Yehonatan Weinberger
- Rabin Medical Center, Ophthalmology Department and Laboratory of Eye Research, Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Petah-Tikva 49100, Israel
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 6997801, Israel
| | - Rabeei Haj Daood
- Rabin Medical Center, Ophthalmology Department and Laboratory of Eye Research, Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Petah-Tikva 49100, Israel
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 6997801, Israel
| | - José A. Fernández
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Ivan Budnik
- Sheba Medical Center, The Amalia Biron Thrombosis Research Institute, Tel-Hashomer 52621, Israel
| | - Sarina Levy-Mendelovich
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 6997801, Israel
- Sheba Medical Center, The Amalia Biron Thrombosis Research Institute, Tel-Hashomer 52621, Israel
| | - Gili Kenet
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 6997801, Israel
- Sheba Medical Center, The Amalia Biron Thrombosis Research Institute, Tel-Hashomer 52621, Israel
| | - Yael Nisgav
- Rabin Medical Center, Ophthalmology Department and Laboratory of Eye Research, Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Petah-Tikva 49100, Israel
| | - Dov Weinberger
- Rabin Medical Center, Ophthalmology Department and Laboratory of Eye Research, Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Petah-Tikva 49100, Israel
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 6997801, Israel
| | - John H. Griffin
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Tami Livnat
- Rabin Medical Center, Ophthalmology Department and Laboratory of Eye Research, Felsenstein Medical Research Center, Petah-Tikva 49100, Israel
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 6997801, Israel
- Sheba Medical Center, The Amalia Biron Thrombosis Research Institute, Tel-Hashomer 52621, Israel
- Correspondence:
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