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Jin Y, Basu S, Feng M, Ning Y, Munasinghe I, Joachim AM, Li J, Madden R, Burks H, Gao P, Perera C, Werbovetz KA, Zhang K, Wang MZ. CYP5122A1 encodes an essential sterol C4-methyl oxidase in Leishmania donovani and determines the antileishmanial activity of antifungal azoles. RESEARCH SQUARE 2023:rs.3.rs-3185204. [PMID: 37546914 PMCID: PMC10402201 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3185204/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
Visceral leishmaniasis, caused by Leishmania donovani, is a life-threatening parasitic disease, but current antileishmanial drugs are limited and have severe drawbacks. There have been efforts to repurpose antifungal azole drugs for the treatment of Leishmania infection. Antifungal azoles are known to potently inhibit the activity of cytochrome P450 (CYP) 51 enzymes which are responsible for removing the C14α-methyl group of lanosterol, a key step in ergosterol biosynthesis in Leishmania. However, they exhibit varying degrees of antileishmanial activities in culture, suggesting the existence of unrecognized molecular targets for these compounds. Our previous study reveals that, in Leishmania, lanosterol undergoes parallel C4- and C14-demethylation reactions to form 4α,14α-dimethylzymosterol and T-MAS, respectively. In the current study, CYP5122A1 is identified as a sterol C4-methyl oxidase that catalyzes the sequential oxidation of lanosterol to form C4-oxidation metabolites. CYP5122A1 is essential for both L. donovani promastigotes in culture and intracellular amastigotes in infected mice. Overexpression of CYP5122A1 results in growth delay, differentiation defects, increased tolerance to stress, and altered expression of lipophosphoglycan and proteophosphoglycan. CYP5122A1 also helps to determine the antileishmanial effect of antifungal azoles in vitro. Dual inhibitors of CYP51 and CYP5122A1, e.g., clotrimazole and posaconazole, possess superior antileishmanial activity against L. donovani promastigotes whereas CYP51-selective inhibitors, e.g., fluconazole and voriconazole, have little effect on promastigote growth. Our findings uncover the critical biochemical and biological role of CYP5122A1 in L. donovani and provide an important foundation for developing new antileishmanial drugs by targeting both CYP enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiru Jin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Somrita Basu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
| | - Mei Feng
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Yu Ning
- Department of Biological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
| | - Indeewara Munasinghe
- Synthetic Chemical Biology Core Laboratory, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Arline M. Joachim
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Junan Li
- College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Robert Madden
- Department of Biological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
| | - Hannah Burks
- Department of Biological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
| | - Philip Gao
- Protein Production Group, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Chamani Perera
- Synthetic Chemical Biology Core Laboratory, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Karl A. Werbovetz
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Kai Zhang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
| | - Michael Zhuo Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
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Alpizar-Sosa EA, Ithnin NRB, Wei W, Pountain AW, Weidt SK, Donachie AM, Ritchie R, Dickie EA, Burchmore RJS, Denny PW, Barrett MP. Amphotericin B resistance in Leishmania mexicana: Alterations to sterol metabolism and oxidative stress response. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010779. [PMID: 36170238 PMCID: PMC9581426 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Amphotericin B is increasingly used in treatment of leishmaniasis. Here, fourteen independent lines of Leishmania mexicana and one L. infantum line were selected for resistance to either amphotericin B or the related polyene antimicrobial, nystatin. Sterol profiling revealed that, in each resistant line, the predominant wild-type sterol, ergosta-5,7,24-trienol, was replaced by other sterol intermediates. Broadly, two different profiles emerged among the resistant lines. Whole genome sequencing then showed that these distinct profiles were due either to mutations in the sterol methyl transferase (C24SMT) gene locus or the sterol C5 desaturase (C5DS) gene. In three lines an additional deletion of the miltefosine transporter gene was found. Differences in sensitivity to amphotericin B were apparent, depending on whether cells were grown in HOMEM, supplemented with foetal bovine serum, or a serum free defined medium (DM). Metabolomic analysis after exposure to AmB showed that a large increase in glucose flux via the pentose phosphate pathway preceded cell death in cells sustained in HOMEM but not DM, indicating the oxidative stress was more significantly induced under HOMEM conditions. Several of the lines were tested for their ability to infect macrophages and replicate as amastigote forms, alongside their ability to establish infections in mice. While several AmB resistant lines showed reduced virulence, at least two lines displayed heightened virulence in mice whilst retaining their resistance phenotype, emphasising the risks of resistance emerging to this critical drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edubiel A. Alpizar-Sosa
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, School of Infection & Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom
| | - Nur Raihana Binti Ithnin
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, School of Infection & Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Wenbin Wei
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew W. Pountain
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, School of Infection & Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Institute for Computational Medicine, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Stefan K. Weidt
- Glasgow Polyomics, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Bearsden, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Anne M. Donachie
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, School of Infection & Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Ryan Ritchie
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, School of Infection & Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Emily A. Dickie
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, School of Infection & Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Glasgow Polyomics, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Bearsden, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Richard J. S. Burchmore
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, School of Infection & Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Glasgow Polyomics, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Bearsden, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Paul W. Denny
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom
| | - Michael P. Barrett
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, School of Infection & Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Glasgow Polyomics, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Bearsden, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Understanding the immune responses involved in mediating protection or immunopathology during leishmaniasis. Biochem Soc Trans 2021; 49:297-311. [PMID: 33449103 DOI: 10.1042/bst20200606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is a vector-borne Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD) transmitted by the sand fly and is a major public health problem worldwide. Infections caused by Leishmania clinically manifest as a wide range of diseases, such as cutaneous (CL), diffuse cutaneous (DCL), mucosal (MCL) and visceral leishmaniasis (VL). The host innate and adaptative immune responses play critical roles in the defense against leishmaniasis. However, Leishmania parasites also manipulate the host immune response for their survival and replication. In addition, other factors such as sand fly salivary proteins and microbiota also promote disease susceptibility and parasite spread by modulating local immune response. Thus, a complex interplay between parasite, sand fly and the host immunity governs disease severity and outcome. In this review, we discuss the host immune response during Leishmania infection and highlight the factors associated with resistance or susceptibility.
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Bar Routaray C, Bhor R, Bai S, Kadam NS, Jagtap S, Doshi PJ, Sundar S, Sawant S, Kulkarni MJ, Pai K. SWATH-MS based quantitative proteomics analysis to evaluate the antileishmanial effect of Commiphora wightii- Guggul and Amphotericin B on a clinical isolate of Leishmania donovani. J Proteomics 2020; 223:103800. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2020.103800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Revised: 04/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Braga SS. Multi-target drugs active against leishmaniasis: A paradigm of drug repurposing. Eur J Med Chem 2019; 183:111660. [PMID: 31514064 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.111660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Revised: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This mini-review focuses on leishmanicidal drugs that were sourced from small molecules previously approved for other diseases. The mechanisms of action of these molecules are herein explored, to probe the origins of their inter-species growth inhibitory activities. It is shown how the transversal action of the azoles - fluconazole, posaconazole and itraconazole - in both fungi and Leishmania is due to the occurrence of the same target, lanosterol 14-α-demethylase, in these two groups of species. In turn, the drugs miltefosine and amphotericin B are presented as truly multi-target agents, acting on small molecules, proteins, genes and even organelles. Steps towards future leishmanicidal drug candidates based on the multi-target strategy and on drug repurposing are also briefly presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana Santos Braga
- QOPNA & LAQV/REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal.
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Treating an old disease with new tricks: strategies based on host–guest chemistry for leishmaniasis therapy. J INCL PHENOM MACRO 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10847-019-00885-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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Marshall S, Kelly PH, Singh BK, Pope RM, Kim P, Zhanbolat B, Wilson ME, Yao C. Extracellular release of virulence factor major surface protease via exosomes in Leishmania infantum promastigotes. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:355. [PMID: 29921321 PMCID: PMC6006689 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-2937-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The Leishmania spp. protozoa are introduced into humans through a sand fly blood meal, depositing the infectious metacyclic promastigote form of the parasite into human skin. Parasites enter a variety of host cells, although a majority are found in macrophages where they replicate intracellularly during chronic leishmaniasis. Symptomatic leishmaniasis causes considerable human morbidity in endemic regions. The Leishmania spp. evade host microbicidal mechanisms partially through virulence-associated proteins such as the major surface protease (MSP or GP63), to inactivate immune factors in the host environment. MSP is a metalloprotease encoded by a tandem array of genes belonging to three msp gene classes, whose mRNAs are differentially expressed in different life stages of the parasite. Like other cells, Leishmania spp. release small membrane-bound vesicles called exosomes into their environment. The purpose of this study was to detect MSP proteins in exosomal vesicles of Leishmania spp. protozoa. Methods Using mass spectrometry data we determined the profile of MSP class proteins released in L. infantum exosomes derived from promastigotes in their avirulent procyclic (logarithmic) stage and virulent stationary and metacyclic stages. MSP protein isoforms belonging to each of the three msp gene classes could be identified by unique peptides. Results Metacyclic promastigote exosomes contained the highest, and logarithmic exosomes had the lowest abundance of total MSP. Among the MSP classes, MSPC class had the greatest variety of isoforms, but was least abundant in all exosomes. Nonetheless, all MSP classes were present at higher levels in exosomes released from stationary or metacyclic promastigotes than logarithmic promastigotes. Conclusions The data suggest the efficiency of exosome release may be more important than the identity of MSP isoform in determining the MSP content of Leishmania spp. exosomes. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-018-2937-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Skye Marshall
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and One Health Center for Zoonoses and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, St. Kitts & Nevis, West Indies, USA
| | - Patrick H Kelly
- Department of Microbiology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Brajesh K Singh
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA.,Present address: Stead Family Department of Pediatrics, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - R Marshall Pope
- The Proteomics Facility, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Peter Kim
- Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Bayan Zhanbolat
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Mary E Wilson
- Department of Microbiology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA.,Department of Epidemiology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA.,Iowa City VA Medical Center, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Chaoqun Yao
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and One Health Center for Zoonoses and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, St. Kitts & Nevis, West Indies, USA.
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Khan I, Khan M, Umar MN, Oh DH. Attenuation and Production of the Amphotericin B-Resistant Leishmania tropica Strain. Jundishapur J Microbiol 2016; 9:e32159. [PMID: 27630762 PMCID: PMC5011406 DOI: 10.5812/jjm.32159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2015] [Revised: 01/27/2016] [Accepted: 04/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Infections caused by Leishmania are becoming major public health problems on a global scale. Many species of Leishmania around the world are obtaining resistance levels of up to 15 folds, as estimated by the World Health Organization. Leishmania showing resistance is relatively difficult to observe and maintain in laboratory settings. Objectives The current study deals with the generation of Leishmania tropica strains that are resistant to amphotericin B (amp B). Materials and Methods The L. tropica strain was attenuated using continuous passaging 20 times. The infectivity of L. tropica was confirmed in BALB/c mice. The L. tropica resistant strain was produced in vitro using a continuous increase in drug pressure. The cross resistance of L. tropica to other drugs was also investigated. Results After 20 continuous passages, the BALB/c mice tested negative in the development of leishmaniasis. At a concentration of 0.1 µg/mL, L. tropica showed resistance to amp B. The newly developed promastigotes were 16 times more resistant compared to the resistance of the wild type promastigotes. The resistant L. tropica strain showed cross resistance to itraconazole and had a resistance index that was greater than five. The resistant strain displayed maximum stability for more than three months in the drug-free medium. Conclusions The resistant strain of L. tropica can be produced in laboratories using continuous drug pressure. The attenuated resistant strain has significant implications (both medically and academically) in the ability to overcome resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imran Khan
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabd, Pakistan
| | - Momin Khan
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabd, Pakistan
| | | | - Deog-Hwan Oh
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Republic of Korea
- Corresponding author: Deog-Hwan Oh, Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Republic of Korea. Tel: +82-332506457, Fax: +82-332506457, E-mail:
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Yao C, Wilson ME. Dynamics of sterol synthesis during development of Leishmania spp. parasites to their virulent form. Parasit Vectors 2016; 9:200. [PMID: 27071464 PMCID: PMC4830053 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1470-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The Leishmania spp. protozoa, the causative agents of the “neglected” tropical disease leishmaniasis, are transmitted to mammals by sand fly vectors. Within the sand fly, parasites transform from amastigotes to procyclic promastigotes, followed by development of virulent (metacyclic) promastigote forms. The latter are infectious to mammalian hosts. Biochemical components localized in the parasite plasma membrane such as proteins and sterols play a pivotal role in Leishmania pathogenesis. Leishmania spp. lack the enzymes for cholesterol synthesis, and the dynamics of sterol acquisition and biosynthesis in parasite developmental stages are not understood. We hypothesized that dynamic changes in sterol composition during metacyclogenesis contribute to the virulence of metacyclic promastigotes. Methods Sterols were extracted from logarithmic phase or metacyclic promastigotes grown in liquid culture with or without cholesterol, and analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively by gas chromatograph-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). TriTrypDB was searched for identification of genes involved in Leishmania sterol biosynthetic pathways. Results In total nine sterols were identified. There were dynamic changes in sterols during promastigote metacyclogenesis. Cholesterol in the culture medium affected sterol composition in different parasite stages. There were qualitative and relative quantitative differences between the sterol content of virulent versus avirulent parasite strains. A tentative sterol biosynthetic pathway in Leishmania spp. promastigotes was identified. Conclusions Significant differences in sterol composition were observed between promastigote stages, and between parasites exposed to different extracellular cholesterol in the environment. These data lay the foundation for further investigating the role of sterols in the pathogenesis of Leishmania spp. infections. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-016-1470-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaoqun Yao
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and One Health Center for Zoonoses and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 334, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies, ᅟ.
| | - Mary E Wilson
- Departments of Internal Medicine, Microbiology and Epidemiology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA.,Iowa City VA Medical Center, Iowa City, IA, USA
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Gurung P, Kanneganti TD. Innate immunity against Leishmania infections. Cell Microbiol 2015; 17:1286-94. [PMID: 26249747 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Revised: 07/09/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is a major health problem that affects more than 300 million people throughout the world. The morbidity associated with the disease causes serious economic burden in Leishmania endemic regions. Despite the morbidity and economic burden associated with Leishmaniasis, this disease rarely gets noticed and is still categorized under neglected tropical diseases. The lack of research combined with the ability of Leishmania to evade immune recognition has rendered our efforts to design therapeutic treatments or vaccines challenging. Herein, we review the literature on Leishmania from innate immune perspective and discuss potential problems as well as solutions and future directions that could aid in identifying novel therapeutic targets to eliminate this parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prajwal Gurung
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
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Cecílio P, Pérez-Cabezas B, Santarém N, Maciel J, Rodrigues V, Cordeiro da Silva A. Deception and manipulation: the arms of leishmania, a successful parasite. Front Immunol 2014; 5:480. [PMID: 25368612 PMCID: PMC4202772 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Accepted: 09/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmania spp. are intracellular parasitic protozoa responsible for a group of neglected tropical diseases, endemic in 98 countries around the world, called leishmaniasis. These parasites have a complex digenetic life cycle requiring a susceptible vertebrate host and a permissive insect vector, which allow their transmission. The clinical manifestations associated with leishmaniasis depend on complex interactions between the parasite and the host immune system. Consequently, leishmaniasis can be manifested as a self-healing cutaneous affliction or a visceral pathology, being the last one fatal in 85–90% of untreated cases. As a result of a long host–parasite co-evolutionary process, Leishmania spp. developed different immunomodulatory strategies that are essential for the establishment of infection. Only through deception and manipulation of the immune system, Leishmania spp. can complete its life cycle and survive. The understanding of the mechanisms associated with immune evasion and disease progression is essential for the development of novel therapies and vaccine approaches. Here, we revise how the parasite manipulates cell death and immune responses to survive and thrive in the shadow of the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Cecílio
- Parasite Disease Group, Institute for Molecular and Cell Biology (IBMC), University of Porto , Porto , Portugal
| | - Begoña Pérez-Cabezas
- Parasite Disease Group, Institute for Molecular and Cell Biology (IBMC), University of Porto , Porto , Portugal
| | - Nuno Santarém
- Parasite Disease Group, Institute for Molecular and Cell Biology (IBMC), University of Porto , Porto , Portugal
| | - Joana Maciel
- Parasite Disease Group, Institute for Molecular and Cell Biology (IBMC), University of Porto , Porto , Portugal
| | - Vasco Rodrigues
- Parasite Disease Group, Institute for Molecular and Cell Biology (IBMC), University of Porto , Porto , Portugal
| | - Anabela Cordeiro da Silva
- Parasite Disease Group, Institute for Molecular and Cell Biology (IBMC), University of Porto , Porto , Portugal ; Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto , Porto , Portugal
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