Importance of conserved residues of the serine protease autotransporter beta-domain in passenger domain processing and beta-barrel assembly

Genomic analysis of shiga toxin-containing Escherichia coli O157:H7 isolated from Argentinean cattle

Cattle are the main reservoir of Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC), with O157:H7 the distinctive serotype. EHEC is the main causative agent of a severe systemic disease, Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome (HUS). Argentina has the highest pediatric HUS incidence worldwide with 12–14 cases per 100,000 children. Herein, we assessed the genomes of EHEC O157:H7 isolates recovered from cattle in the humid Pampas of Argentina. According to phylogenetic studies, EHEC O157 can be divided into clades. Clade 8 strains that were classified as hypervirulent. Most of the strains of this clade have a Shiga toxin stx2a-stx2c genotype. To better understand the molecular bases related to virulence, pathogenicity and evolution of EHEC O157:H7, we performed a comparative genomic analysis of these isolates through whole genome sequencing. The isolates classified as clade 8 (four strains) and clade 6 (four strains) contained 13 to 16 lambdoid prophages per genome, and the observed variability of prophages was analysed. An inter strain comparison show that while some prophages are highly related and can be grouped into families, other are unique. Prophages encoding for stx2a were highly diverse, while those encoding for stx2c were conserved. A cluster of genes exclusively found in clade 8 contained 13 genes that mostly encoded for DNA binding proteins. In the studied strains, polymorphisms in Q antiterminator, the Q-stx2A intergenic region and the O and P γ alleles of prophage replication proteins are associated with different levels of Stx2a production. As expected, all strains had the pO157 plasmid that was highly conserved, although one strain displayed a transposon interruption in the protease EspP gene. This genomic analysis may contribute to the understanding of the genetic basis of the hypervirulence of EHEC O157:H7 strains circulating in Argentine cattle. This work aligns with other studies of O157 strain variation in other populations that shows key differences in Stx2a-encoding prophages.

Type V Secretion Systems in Bacteria

Type V secretion denotes a variety of secretion systems that cross the outer membrane in Gram-negative bacteria but that depend on the Sec machinery for transport through the inner membrane. They are possibly the simplest bacterial secretion systems, because they consist only of a single polypeptide chain (or two chains in the case of two-partner secretion). Their seemingly autonomous transport through the outer membrane has led to the term "autotransporters" for various subclasses of type V secretion. In this chapter, we review the structure and function of these transporters and review recent findings on additional factors involved in the secretion process, which have put the term "autotransporter" to debate.

Secretome of obligate intracellular Rickettsia

The genus Rickettsia (Alphaproteobacteria, Rickettsiales, Rickettsiaceae) is comprised of obligate intracellular parasites, with virulent species of interest both as causes of emerging infectious diseases and for their potential deployment as bioterrorism agents. Currently, there are no effective commercially available vaccines, with treatment limited primarily to tetracycline antibiotics, although others (e.g. josamycin, ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, and azithromycin) are also effective. Much of the recent research geared toward understanding mechanisms underlying rickettsial pathogenicity has centered on characterization of secreted proteins that directly engage eukaryotic cells. Herein, we review all aspects of the Rickettsia secretome, including six secretion systems, 19 characterized secretory proteins, and potential moonlighting proteins identified on surfaces of multiple Rickettsia species. Employing bioinformatics and phylogenomics, we present novel structural and functional insight on each secretion system. Unexpectedly, our investigation revealed that the majority of characterized secretory proteins have not been assigned to their cognate secretion pathways. Furthermore, for most secretion pathways, the requisite signal sequences mediating translocation are poorly understood. As a blueprint for all known routes of protein translocation into host cells, this resource will assist research aimed at uniting characterized secreted proteins with their apposite secretion pathways. Furthermore, our work will help in the identification of novel secreted proteins involved in rickettsial 'life on the inside'.

A mortise-tenon joint in the transmembrane domain modulates autotransporter assembly into bacterial outer membranes

Bacterial autotransporters comprise a 12-stranded membrane-embedded β-barrel domain, which must be folded in a process that entraps segments of an N-terminal passenger domain. This first stage of autotransporter folding determines whether subsequent translocation can deliver the N-terminal domain to its functional form on the bacterial cell surface. Here, paired glycine-aromatic 'mortise and tenon' motifs are shown to join neighbouring β-strands in the C-terminal barrel domain, and mutations within these motifs slow the rate and extent of passenger domain translocation to the surface of bacterial cells. In line with this, biophysical studies of the autotransporter Pet show that the conserved residues significantly quicken completion of the folding reaction and promote stability of the autotransporter barrel domain. Comparative genomics demonstrate conservation of glycine-aromatic residue pairings through evolution as a previously unrecognized feature of all autotransporter proteins.

Autotransporter-based cell surface display in Gram-negative bacteria

Cell surface display of proteins can be used for several biotechnological applications such as the screening of protein libraries, whole cell biocatalysis and live vaccine development. Amongst all secretion systems and surface appendages of Gram-negative bacteria, the autotransporter secretion pathway holds great potential for surface display because of its modular structure and apparent simplicity. Autotransporters are polypeptides made up of an N-terminal signal peptide, a secreted or surface-displayed passenger domain and a membrane-anchored C-terminal translocation unit. Genetic replacement of the passenger domain allows for the surface display of heterologous passengers. An autotransporter-based surface expression module essentially consists of an application-dependent promoter system, a signal peptide, a passenger domain of interest and the autotransporter translocation unit. The passenger domain needs to be compatible with surface translocation although till now no general rules have been determined to test this compatibility. The autotransporter technology for surface display of heterologous passenger domains is critically discussed for various applications.

Autotransporter secretion: varying on a theme

Autotransporters are widely distributed among Gram-negative bacteria. They can have a large variety of functions and many of them have a role in virulence. They are synthesized as large precursors with an N-terminal signal sequence that mediates transport across the inner membrane via the Sec machinery and a translocator domain that mediates the transport of the connected passenger domain across the outer membrane to the bacterial cell surface. Like integral outer membrane proteins, the translocator domain folds in a β-barrel structure and requires the Bam machinery for its insertion into the outer membrane. After transport across the outer membrane, the passenger may stay connected via the translocator domain to the bacterial cell surface or it is proteolytically released into the extracellular milieu. Based on the size of the translocator domain and its position relative to the passenger in the precursor, autotransporters are divided into four sub-categories. We review here the current knowledge of the biogenesis, structure and function of various autotransporters.

VirK is a periplasmic protein required for efficient secretion of plasmid-encoded toxin from enteroaggregative Escherichia coli

Despite the autotransporter (AT) moniker, AT secretion appears to involve the function of periplasmic chaperones. We identified four periplasmic proteins that specifically bound to plasmid-encoded toxin (Pet), an AT produced by enteroaggregative Escherichia coli (EAEC). These proteins include the 17-kDa Skp chaperone and the 37-kDa VirK protein. We found that the virK gene is present in different Enterobacteriaceae. VirK bound to misfolded conformations of the Pet passenger domain, but it did not bind to the folded passenger domain or to the β domain of Pet. Assays with an EAECΔvirK mutant and its complemented version showed that, in the absence of VirK, Pet was not secreted but was instead retained in the periplasm as proteolytic fragments. In contrast, Pet was secreted from a Δskp mutant. VirK was not required for the insertion of porin proteins into the outer membrane but assisted with insertion of the Pet β domain into the outer membrane. Loss of VirK function blocked the EAEC-mediated cytotoxic effect against HEp-2 cells. Thus, VirK facilitates the secretion of the AT Pet by maintaining the passenger domain in a conformation that both avoids periplasmic proteolysis and facilitates β-domain insertion into the outer membrane.

From self sufficiency to dependence: mechanisms and factors important for autotransporter biogenesis

Autotransporters are a superfamily of proteins that use the type V secretion pathway for their delivery to the surface of Gram-negative bacteria. At first glance, autotransporters look to contain all the functional elements required to promote their own secretion: an amino-terminal signal peptide to mediate translocation across the inner membrane, a central passenger domain that is the secreted functional moiety, and a channel-forming carboxyl terminus that facilitates passenger domain translocation across the outer membrane. However, recent discoveries of common structural themes, translocation intermediates and accessory interactions have challenged the perceived simplicity of autotransporter secretion. Here, we discuss how these studies have led to an improved understanding of the mechanisms responsible for autotransporter biogenesis.

Autotransporter protein secretion

Autotransporter proteins are a large family of virulence factors secreted from Gram-negative bacteria by a unique mechanism. First described in the 1980s, these proteins have a C-terminal region that folds into a β-barrel in the bacterial outer membrane. The so-called passenger domain attached to this barrel projects away from the cell surface and may be liberated from the cell by self-cleavage or surface proteases. Although the majority of passenger domains have a similar β-helical structure, they carry a variety of sub­domains, allowing them to carry out widely differing functions related to pathogenesis. Considerable biochemical and structural characterisation of the barrel domain has shown that ‘autotransporters’ in fact require a conserved and essential protein complex in the outer membrane for correct folding. Although the globular domains of this complex projecting into the periplasmic space have also been structurally characterised, the overall secretion pathway of the autotransporters remains highly puzzling. It was presumed for many years that the passenger domain passed through the centre of the barrel domain to reach the cell surface, driven at least in part by folding. This picture is complicated by conflicting data, and there is currently little hard information on the true nature of the secretion intermediates. As well as their medical importance therefore, autotransporters are proving to be an excellent system to study the folding and membrane insertion of outer membrane proteins in general. This review focuses on structural aspects of autotransporters; their many functions in pathogenesis are beyond its scope.

Molecular basis for the activation of a catalytic asparagine residue in a self-cleaving bacterial autotransporter

Autotransporters are secreted proteins produced by pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria. They consist of a membrane-embedded β-domain and an extracellular passenger domain that is sometimes cleaved and released from the cell surface. We solved the structures of three noncleavable mutants of the autotransporter EspP to examine how it promotes asparagine cyclization to cleave its passenger. We found that cyclization is facilitated by multiple factors. The active-site asparagine is sterically constrained to conformations favorable for cyclization, while electrostatic interactions correctly orient the carboxamide group for nucleophilic attack. During molecular dynamics simulations, water molecules were observed to enter the active site and to form hydrogen bonds favorable for increasing the nucleophilicity of the active-site asparagine. When the activated asparagine attacks its main-chain carbonyl carbon, the resulting oxyanion is stabilized by a protonated glutamate. Upon cleavage, this proton could be transferred to the leaving amine group, helping overcome a significant energy barrier. Together, these findings provide insight into factors important for asparagine cyclization, a mechanism broadly used for protein cleavage.