Isolation of Pasteurella haemolytica leukotoxin mutants

β-Hemolysis May Not Be a Reliable Indicator of Leukotoxicity of Mannheimia haemolytica Isolates

Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica causes bronchopneumonia in domestic and wild ruminants. Leukotoxin is the critical virulence factor of M. haemolytica. Since β-hemolysis is caused by a large number of leukotoxin-positive M. haemolytica isolates, all β-hemolytic M. haemolytica isolates are considered to be leukotoxic as well. However, conflicting reports exist in literature as to the leukotoxic and hemolytic properties of M. haemolytica. One group of researchers reported their leukotoxin-deletion mutants to be hemolytic while another reported their mutants to be non-hemolytic. The objective of this study was to determine whether β-hemolysis is a reliable indicator of leukotoxicity of M. haemolytica isolates. Ninety-five isolates of M. haemolytica were first confirmed for presence of leukotoxin gene (lktA) by a leukotoxin-specific PCR assay. Culture supernatant fluids from these isolates were then tested for presence of leukotoxin protein by an ELISA, and for leukotoxic activity by a cytotoxicity assay. All isolates were tested for β-hemolysis by culture on blood agar plates. Sixty-two isolates (65%) produced leukotoxin protein while 33 isolates (35%) did not. Surprisingly, 18 of the 33 isolates (55%), that did not produce leukotoxin protein, were hemolytic. Of the 62 isolates that produced leukotoxin, 55 (89%) were leukotoxic while 7 (11%) were not. All except one of the 55 leukotoxic isolates (98%) were also hemolytic. All seven isolates that were not leukotoxic were hemolytic. Taken together, these results suggest that β-hemolysis may not be a reliable indicator of leukotoxicity of M. haemolytica isolates. Furthermore, all M. haemolytica isolates that possess lktA gene may not secrete active leukotoxin.

Identification of an RTX determinant of Burkholderia cenocepacia J2315 by subtractive hybridization

This study utilized suppressive subtractive hybridization between the clinical isolate Burkholderia cenocepacia J2315 and the closely related environmental isolate Burkholderia cepacia ATCC 25416T to isolate DNA fragments specific to B. cenocepacia J2315. Analysis of the resulting pools of B. cenocepacia-specific DNAs identified several fragments that may be part of putative virulence factors. Further in silico analysis of a single fragment indicated that it was internal to a gene of which the predicted product had characteristics of repeat in toxin (RTX)-like proteins and high similarity to proteins in other human or plant pathogens. In conjunction with this finding, phenotypic traits associated with known RTX proteins were assessed. A haemagglutinating activity of B. cenocepacia J2315 was identified that was absent in B. cepacia ATCC 25416T. The expression of this activity appeared to be growth phase-dependent. Analysis of the gene presence and haemagglutinating activity across the species of the B. cepacia complex showed that both were common to the ET12 lineage of B. cenocepacia, but were absent in the other species examined. Haemagglutinating activity was limited to isolates with the RTX-like gene. Expression studies utilizing quantitative PCR demonstrated an association between onset of haemagglutinating activity and increased expression of the gene, which suggests that the putative RTX determinant encodes a haemagglutinating activity.

Biological effects of two genetically defined leukotoxin mutants of Mannheimia haemolytica

Mannheimia(Pasteurella)haemolytica serotype 1 is the primary causative agent responsible for bovine pneumonic mannheimiosis, also known as shipping fever in cattle. The bacterium produces a variety of virulence factors, foremost of which is the exotoxic leukotoxin. The leukotoxin is a calcium-dependent cytolysin that is a member of the RTX (repeats in toxin) family and exhibits a narrow cell-type and species specificity and has biological effects only on ruminant leukocytes and platelets. The genetic organization of the leukotoxin is comprised of four genes: lktC, lktA, lktB and lktD. The lktA structural gene encodes the protoxin (pro-LktA) and lktC encodes a transacylase that post-translationally modifies the inactive pro-LktA to a biologically active wild-type leukotoxin (LktA). The LktA has been implicated as the key factor that contributes to the pathogenesis of lung injury associated with the disease and considerable efforts have been employed in abrogating toxin function while retaining immunogenicity, with an eye towards design of attenuated vaccines. We hypothesized that the pro-LktA retains the ability to cause biological effects on target cells as has been reported in the case of the closely related RTX toxin alpha-hemolysin (HlyA). We also examined the biological effects of an amino-terminal truncation mutant leukotoxin DeltaLktA on target cells. Thus the objectives of our study were to investigate whether two different mutant leukotoxins, one a nonacylated pro-LktA, and the other lacking 344 amino acids at the N-terminal end of the LktA protein; DeltaLktA, are capable of (i). binding to the beta2-integrin leukotoxin receptor, (ii). inducing the elevation of second messenger intracellular calcium ([Ca(2+)](i)), and (iii). inducing inflammatory gene expression, reactive oxygen metabolites (ROMs) and cytolysis in target cells. Our results demonstrate that neither acylation nor the amino terminal 344 amino acids are required for LktA binding but are essential for LktA-induced [Ca(2+)](i) elevation, generation of ROM, generation of the inflammatory cytokine IL-8 and cytolysis in target cells.

Leukotoxins of gram-negative bacteria

Leukotoxins are a group of exotoxins that produce their primary toxic effects against leukocytes, especially polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs). Leukotoxins include a variety of chemicals ranging from 9,10-epoxy 12-octadecenoate, a fatty acid derivative secreted by leukocytes themselves, to proteins such as RTX (repeats in toxin). This review focuses on leukotoxins of three species of gram-negative bacteria, Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica, Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, and Fusobacterium necrophorum.

Inactivation of Pasteurella (Mannheimia) haemolytica leukotoxin causes partial attenuation of virulence in a calf challenge model

The leukotoxin of Pasteurella (Mannheimia) haemolytica is believed to play a significant role in pathogenesis, causing cell lysis and apoptosis that lead to the lung pathology characteristic of bovine shipping fever. Using a system for Cre-lox recombination, a nonpolar mutation within the lktC transacylase gene of the leukotoxin operon was created. The lktC locus was insertionally inactivated using a loxP-aph3-loxP cassette, and then the aph3 marker was excised from the chromosome by Cre recombinase expressed from a P. haemolytica plasmid. The resulting lktC strain (SH2099) secretes inactive leukotoxin and carries no known antibiotic resistance genes. Strain SH2099 was tested for virulence in a calf challenge model. We inoculated 3 x 10(8) or 3 x 10(9) CFU of wild-type or mutant bacteria into the lungs of healthy, colostrum-deprived calves via transthoracic injection. Animals were observed for clinical signs and for nasal colonization for 4 days, after which they were euthanized and necropsied. The lower inoculum (3 x 10(8) CFU) caused significantly fewer deaths and allowed lung pathology to be scored and compared, while the 3 x 10(9) CFU dose of either the wild-type or mutant was lethal to >/=50% of the calves. The estimated 50% lethal dose of SH2099 was four times higher than that of the wild-type strain. Lung lesion scores were reduced twofold in animals inoculated with the mutant, while clinical scores were nearly equivalent for both strains. The wild-type and mutant strains were equally capable of colonizing the upper respiratory tracts of the calves. In this study, the P. haemolytica lktC mutant was shown to be less virulent than the parent strain.

Construction of an isogenic leukotoxin deletion mutant of Pasteurella haemolytica serotype 1: characterization and virulence

Allelic replacement was used to generate two isogenic lktA deletion mutants of Pasteurella haemolytica serotype 1 that were incapable of synthesizing leukotoxin (Lkt). Southern blot data confirmed that lktA sequences were absent in the two P. haemolytica deletion mutants. Culture supernatants and whole cell lysates from the wild type P. haemolytica, D153 parent strain, but not the lktA deletion mutants, contained immunoreactive and bioactive leukotoxic protein. In addition, only the parent strain was haemolytic when grown on bovine and sheep blood agar plates. Virulence of the lktA deletion mutant, lktA 77, was compared with the parent in an experimentally infected calf model of pneumonic pasteurellosis. Results revealed significant reduction in virulence in the lktA mutant as measured by clinical and lung lesion scores. Notable differences in histological changes such as markedly reduced necrosis and lack of leukocyte degeneration occurred in calves infected with the lktA mutant in comparison with those infected with the parent wild-type strain. Thus, it appears that leukotoxin plays a important role in the pathogenesis of lung injury in bovine pneumonic pasteurellosis.

Binding of Pasteurella haemolytica leukotoxin to bovine leukocytes

Pasteurella haemolytica is the principal bacterial pathogen in the bovine respiratory disease complex. This organism produces an exotoxin (referred to as leukotoxin) during logarithmic-phase growth that is a potent leukocyte-modulating agent. At low concentrations, it activates neutrophils and mononuclear phagocytes to release inflammatory mediators, while at the same time making these cells destined to undergo apoptotic cell death. At higher concentrations, the toxin causes rapid swelling and loss of cell viability. In this study, we demonstrated that toxin binding can be directly evaluated by flow cytometry with biologically active biotinylated leukotoxin. Leukotoxin binding was blocked by the addition of a neutralizing anti-leukotoxin monoclonal antibody and was not detected when bovine leukocytes were incubated with culture filtrates from a mutant strain of P. haemolytica that does not produce biologically active leukotoxin. In addition, treatment of bovine leukocytes with protease K eliminated subsequent binding of leukotoxin, suggesting that there is a protein on the leukocyte surface that is either a leukotoxin binding site or is required for stabilization of leukotoxin binding. We did not detect binding of biotinylated leukotoxin to porcine or human leukocytes, which have been reported previously to be resistant to the lytic effects of the leukotoxin. These findings suggest that there may be a specific binding site for P. haemolytica leukotoxin on bovine but not on porcine or human leukocytes and that it might be involved in the activation and lytic activities of the leukotoxin.

Pasteurella haemolytica leukotoxin induces bovine leukocytes to undergo morphologic changes consistent with apoptosis in vitro

Infection of the bovine lung with Pasteurella haemolytica results in an acute respiratory disorder known as pneumonic pasteurellosis. One of the key virulence determinants used by this bacterium is secretion of an exotoxin that is specific for ruminant leukocytes (leukotoxin). At low concentrations, the leukotoxin can activate ruminant leukocytes, whereas at higher concentrations, it inhibits leukocyte functions and is cytolytic, presumably as a result of pore formation and subsequent membrane permeabilization. We have investigated the possibility that the activation-inhibition paradox is explained in part by leukotoxin-mediated apoptosis (i.e., activation-induced cell death) of bovine leukocytes. Incubation of bovine leukocytes with P. haemolytica leukotoxin caused marked cytoplasmic membrane blebbing (zeiosis) and chromatin condensation and margination, both of which are hallmarks of apoptosis. The observed morphologic changes in bovine leukocytes were leukotoxin dependent, because they were significantly diminished in the presence of an anti-leukotoxin monoclonal antibody. In addition, bovine leukocytes incubated with culture supernatant from a mutant strain of P. haemolytica that does not produce any detectable leukotoxin failed to exhibit the morphologic changes characteristic of cells undergoing apoptosis. These observations may represent an important mechanism by which P. haemolytica overwhelms host defenses, contributing to the fibrinous pleuropneumonia characteristic of bovine pasteurellosis.

Hemolytic activity of the Pasteurella haemolytica leukotoxin

A Pasteurella haemolytica mutant incapable of producing leukotoxin was created by allelic replacement. Concentrated culture supernatants from wild-type P. haemolytica, but not from the mutant, contained the 102-kDa leukotoxin protein and lysed bovine lymphoma cells and sheep erythrocytes. Wild-type P. haemolytica demonstrated the typical beta-hemolytic phenotype on sheep and rabbit blood agar, whereas the mutant did not.

Antigenic and virulence properties of Pasteurella haemolytica leukotoxin mutants

Antigenic properties of two mutants of Pasteurella haemolytica, strains 59B0071 and 59B0072, that do not produce detectable leukotoxin were investigated. Western blot (immunoblot) analysis with a number of polyclonal sera from animals recovering from pasteurellosis revealed that both mutants secreted a variety of antigens that were also present in cultures of several wild-type strains. These antigens ranged from about 100 to 15 kDa. Mutant strain 59B0071 was found to be totally deficient in leukotoxin, as judged not only by Western blotting but also by cytotoxicity assays with bovine lymphoma (BL-3) cells or bovine polymorphonuclear cells as targets. The mutant strain 59B0071 had normal levels of a secreted sialylglycoprotease, however. When strains were tested for virulence in goat and cattle challenge experiments, a reduction in mortality and lung lesions was observed with the mutant 59B0071 in comparison with results obtained with wild-type strains. These results are consistent with an important role for leukotoxin in P. haemolytica virulence and suggest that leukotoxin-negative mutants may be useful tools in the investigation of other virulence properties involved in P. haemolytica infections.