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Papageorgiou L, Papa L, Papakonstantinou E, Mataragka A, Dragoumani K, Chaniotis D, Beloukas A, Iliopoulos C, Bongcam-Rudloff E, Chrousos GP, Kossida S, Eliopoulos E, Vlachakis D. SNP and Structural Study of the Notch Superfamily Provides Insights and Novel Pharmacological Targets against the CADASIL Syndrome and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Genes (Basel) 2024; 15:529. [PMID: 38790158 PMCID: PMC11120892 DOI: 10.3390/genes15050529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2024] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
The evolutionary conserved Notch signaling pathway functions as a mediator of direct cell-cell communication between neighboring cells during development. Notch plays a crucial role in various fundamental biological processes in a wide range of tissues. Accordingly, the aberrant signaling of this pathway underlies multiple genetic pathologies such as developmental syndromes, congenital disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer. Over the last two decades, significant data have shown that the Notch signaling pathway displays a significant function in the mature brains of vertebrates and invertebrates beyond neuronal development and specification during embryonic development. Neuronal connection, synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory appear to be regulated by this pathway. Specific mutations in human Notch family proteins have been linked to several neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease, CADASIL, and ischemic injury. Neurodegenerative diseases are incurable disorders of the central nervous system that cause the progressive degeneration and/or death of brain nerve cells, affecting both mental function and movement (ataxia). There is currently a lot of study being conducted to better understand the molecular mechanisms by which Notch plays an essential role in the mature brain. In this study, an in silico analysis of polymorphisms and mutations in human Notch family members that lead to neurodegenerative diseases was performed in order to investigate the correlations among Notch family proteins and neurodegenerative diseases. Particular emphasis was placed on the study of mutations in the Notch3 protein and the structure analysis of the mutant Notch3 protein that leads to the manifestation of the CADASIL syndrome in order to spot possible conserved mutations and interpret the effect of these mutations in the Notch3 protein structure. Conserved mutations of cysteine residues may be candidate pharmacological targets for the potential therapy of CADASIL syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis Papageorgiou
- Laboratory of Genetics, Department of Biotechnology, School of Applied Biology and Biotechnology, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos, 11855 Athens, Greece; (L.P.); (L.P.); (E.P.); (A.M.); (K.D.); (E.E.)
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Health and Care Sciences, University of West Attica, Agioy Spyridonos, 12243 Egaleo, Greece; (D.C.); (A.B.)
| | - Lefteria Papa
- Laboratory of Genetics, Department of Biotechnology, School of Applied Biology and Biotechnology, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos, 11855 Athens, Greece; (L.P.); (L.P.); (E.P.); (A.M.); (K.D.); (E.E.)
| | - Eleni Papakonstantinou
- Laboratory of Genetics, Department of Biotechnology, School of Applied Biology and Biotechnology, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos, 11855 Athens, Greece; (L.P.); (L.P.); (E.P.); (A.M.); (K.D.); (E.E.)
- University Research Institute of Maternal and Child Health & Precision Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, “Aghia Sophia” Children’s Hospital, 11527 Athens, Greece;
| | - Antonia Mataragka
- Laboratory of Genetics, Department of Biotechnology, School of Applied Biology and Biotechnology, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos, 11855 Athens, Greece; (L.P.); (L.P.); (E.P.); (A.M.); (K.D.); (E.E.)
| | - Konstantina Dragoumani
- Laboratory of Genetics, Department of Biotechnology, School of Applied Biology and Biotechnology, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos, 11855 Athens, Greece; (L.P.); (L.P.); (E.P.); (A.M.); (K.D.); (E.E.)
| | - Dimitrios Chaniotis
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Health and Care Sciences, University of West Attica, Agioy Spyridonos, 12243 Egaleo, Greece; (D.C.); (A.B.)
| | - Apostolos Beloukas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Health and Care Sciences, University of West Attica, Agioy Spyridonos, 12243 Egaleo, Greece; (D.C.); (A.B.)
| | - Costas Iliopoulos
- School of Informatics, Faculty of Natural & Mathematical Sciences, King’s College London, Bush House, Strand, London WC2R 2LS, UK;
| | - Erik Bongcam-Rudloff
- Department of Animal Biosciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 756 51 Uppsala, Sweden;
| | - George P. Chrousos
- University Research Institute of Maternal and Child Health & Precision Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, “Aghia Sophia” Children’s Hospital, 11527 Athens, Greece;
| | - Sofia Kossida
- IMGT, The International ImMunoGenetics Information System, Laboratoire d’ImmunoGénétique Moléculaire LIGM, Institut de Génétique Humaine, (IGH), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université de Montpellier (UM), 34000 Montpellier, France;
| | - Elias Eliopoulos
- Laboratory of Genetics, Department of Biotechnology, School of Applied Biology and Biotechnology, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos, 11855 Athens, Greece; (L.P.); (L.P.); (E.P.); (A.M.); (K.D.); (E.E.)
| | - Dimitrios Vlachakis
- Laboratory of Genetics, Department of Biotechnology, School of Applied Biology and Biotechnology, Agricultural University of Athens, 75 Iera Odos, 11855 Athens, Greece; (L.P.); (L.P.); (E.P.); (A.M.); (K.D.); (E.E.)
- University Research Institute of Maternal and Child Health & Precision Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, “Aghia Sophia” Children’s Hospital, 11527 Athens, Greece;
- School of Informatics, Faculty of Natural & Mathematical Sciences, King’s College London, Bush House, Strand, London WC2R 2LS, UK;
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Skene KR. Systems theory, thermodynamics and life: Integrated thinking across ecology, organization and biological evolution. Biosystems 2024; 236:105123. [PMID: 38244715 DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2024.105123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 01/22/2024]
Abstract
In this paper we explore the relevance and integration of system theory and thermodynamics in terms of the Earth system. It is proposed that together, these fields explain the evolution, organization, functionality and directionality of life on Earth. We begin by summarizing historical and current thinking on the definition of life itself. We then investigate the evidence for a single unit of life. Given that any definition of life and its levels of organization are intertwined, we explore how the Earth system is structured and functions from an energetic perspective, by outlining relevant thermodynamic theory relating to molecular, metabolic, cellular, individual, population, species, ecosystem and biome organization. We next investigate the fundamental relationships between systems theory and thermodynamics in terms of the Earth system, examining the key characteristics of self-assembly, self-organization (including autonomy), emergence, non-linearity, feedback and sub-optimality. Finally, we examine the relevance of systems theory and thermodynamics with reference to two specific aspects: the tempo and directionality of evolution and the directional and predictable process of ecological succession. We discuss the importance of the entropic drive in understanding altruism, multicellularity, mutualistic and antagonistic relationships and how maximum entropy production theory may explain patterns thought to evidence the intermediate disturbance hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith R Skene
- Biosphere Research Institute, Angus, United Kingdom.
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3
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Rosandić M, Paar V. The Evolution of Life Is a Road Paved with the DNA Quadruplet Symmetry and the Supersymmetry Genetic Code. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12029. [PMID: 37569405 PMCID: PMC10418607 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241512029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Symmetries have not been completely determined and explained from the discovery of the DNA structure in 1953 and the genetic code in 1961. We show, during 10 years of investigation and research, our discovery of the Supersymmetry Genetic Code table in the form of 2 × 8 codon boxes, quadruplet DNA symmetries, and the classification of trinucleotides/codons, all built with the same physiochemical double mirror symmetry and Watson-Crick pairing. We also show that single-stranded RNA had the complete code of life in the form of the Supersymmetry Genetic Code table simultaneously with instructions of codons' relationship as to how to develop the DNA molecule on the principle of Watson-Crick pairing. We show that the same symmetries between the genetic code and DNA quadruplet are highly conserved during the whole evolution even between phylogenetically distant organisms. In this way, decreasing disorder and entropy enabled the evolution of living beings up to sophisticated species with cognitive features. Our hypothesis that all twenty amino acids are necessary for the origin of life on the Earth, which entirely changes our view on evolution, confirms the evidence of organic natural amino acids from the extra-terrestrial asteroid Ryugu, which is nearly as old as our solar system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marija Rosandić
- Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital Centre Zagreb, (Ret.), 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
- Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Vladimir Paar
- Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia;
- Physics Department, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
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Li C, Wilborn J, Pittman S, Daw J, Alonso-Pérez J, Díaz-Manera J, Weihl CC, Haller G. Comprehensive functional characterization of SGCB coding variants predicts pathogenicity in limb-girdle muscular dystrophy type R4/2E. J Clin Invest 2023; 133:e168156. [PMID: 37317968 PMCID: PMC10266784 DOI: 10.1172/jci168156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Genetic testing is essential for patients with a suspected hereditary myopathy. More than 50% of patients clinically diagnosed with a myopathy carry a variant of unknown significance in a myopathy gene, often leaving them without a genetic diagnosis. Limb-girdle muscular dystrophy (LGMD) type R4/2E is caused by mutations in β-sarcoglycan (SGCB). Together, β-, α-, γ-, and δ-sarcoglycan form a 4-protein transmembrane complex (SGC) that localizes to the sarcolemma. Biallelic loss-of-function mutations in any subunit can lead to LGMD. To provide functional evidence for the pathogenicity of missense variants, we performed deep mutational scanning of SGCB and assessed SGC cell surface localization for all 6,340 possible amino acid changes. Variant functional scores were bimodally distributed and perfectly predicted pathogenicity of known variants. Variants with less severe functional scores more often appeared in patients with slower disease progression, implying a relationship between variant function and disease severity. Amino acid positions intolerant to variation mapped to points of predicted SGC interactions, validated in silico structural models, and enabled accurate prediction of pathogenic variants in other SGC genes. These results will be useful for clinical interpretation of SGCB variants and improving diagnosis of LGMD; we hope they enable wider use of potentially life-saving gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jackson Wilborn
- Department of Neurosurgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | | | | | - Jorge Alonso-Pérez
- Neuromuscular Disease Unit, Neurology Department, Hospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria, Fundación Canaria Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Canarias, Tenerife, Spain
| | - Jordi Díaz-Manera
- John Walton Muscular Dystrophy Research Center, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | | | - Gabe Haller
- Department of Neurology and
- Department of Neurosurgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
- Department of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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Fontecilla-Camps JC. Reflections on the Origin and Early Evolution of the Genetic Code. Chembiochem 2023; 24:e202300048. [PMID: 37052530 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202300048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
Examination of the genetic code (GeCo) reveals that amino acids coded by (A/U) codons display a large functional spectrum and bind RNA whereas, except for Arg, those coded by (G/C) codons do not. From a stereochemical viewpoint, the clear preference for (A/U)-rich codons to be located at the GeCo half blocks suggests they were specifically determined. Conversely, the overall lower affinity of cognate amino acids for their (G/C)-rich anticodons points to their late arrival to the GeCo. It is proposed that i) initially the code was composed of the eight (A/U) codons; ii) these codons were duplicated when G/C nucleotides were added to their wobble positions, and three new codons with G/C in their first position were incorporated; and iii) a combination of A/U and G/C nucleotides progressively generated the remaining codons.
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Guo X, Su M. The Origin of Translation: Bridging the Nucleotides and Peptides. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 24:ijms24010197. [PMID: 36613641 PMCID: PMC9820756 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24010197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Extant biology uses RNA to record genetic information and proteins to execute biochemical functions. Nucleotides are translated into amino acids via transfer RNA in the central dogma. tRNA is essential in translation as it connects the codon and the cognate amino acid. To reveal how the translation emerged in the prebiotic context, we start with the structure and dissection of tRNA, followed by the theory and hypothesis of tRNA and amino acid recognition. Last, we review how amino acids assemble on the tRNA and further form peptides. Understanding the origin of life will also promote our knowledge of artificial living systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuyuan Guo
- School of Genetics and Microbiology, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, College Green, Dublin 2, D02 PN40 Dublin, Ireland
| | - Meng Su
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge CB2 0QH, UK
- Correspondence:
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7
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Vasu K, Khan D, Ramachandiran I, Blankenberg D, Fox P. Analysis of nested alternate open reading frames and their encoded proteins. NAR Genom Bioinform 2022; 4:lqac076. [PMID: 36267124 PMCID: PMC9580016 DOI: 10.1093/nargab/lqac076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2022] [Revised: 08/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms diversify the proteome beyond gene number, while maintaining a sequence relationship between original and altered proteins. A new mechanism breaks this paradigm, generating novel proteins by translating alternative open reading frames (Alt-ORFs) within canonical host mRNAs. Uniquely, ‘alt-proteins’ lack sequence homology with host ORF-derived proteins. We show global amino acid frequencies, and consequent biochemical characteristics of Alt-ORFs nested within host ORFs (nAlt-ORFs), are genetically-driven, and predicted by summation of frequencies of hundreds of encompassing host codon-pairs. Analysis of 101 human nAlt-ORFs of length ≥150 codons confirms the theoretical predictions, revealing an extraordinarily high median isoelectric point (pI) of 11.68, due to anomalous charged amino acid levels. Also, nAlt-ORF proteins exhibit a >2-fold preference for reading frame 2 versus 3, predicted mitochondrial and nuclear localization, and elevated codon adaptation index indicative of natural selection. Our results provide a theoretical and conceptual framework for exploration of these largely unannotated, but potentially significant, alternative ORFs and their encoded proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kommireddy Vasu
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Debjit Khan
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Iyappan Ramachandiran
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Daniel Blankenberg
- Correspondence may also be addressed to Daniel Blankenberg. Tel: +1 216 444 4336;
| | - Paul L Fox
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: +1 216 444 8053; Fax: +1 216 444 9404;
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8
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Komarova ES, Dontsova OA, Pyshnyi DV, Kabilov MR, Sergiev PV. Flow-Seq Method: Features and Application in Bacterial Translation Studies. Acta Naturae 2022; 14:20-37. [PMID: 36694903 PMCID: PMC9844084 DOI: 10.32607/actanaturae.11820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The Flow-seq method is based on using reporter construct libraries, where a certain element regulating the gene expression of fluorescent reporter proteins is represented in many thousands of variants. Reporter construct libraries are introduced into cells, sorted according to their fluorescence level, and then subjected to next-generation sequencing. Therefore, it turns out to be possible to identify patterns that determine the expression efficiency, based on tens and hundreds of thousands of reporter constructs in one experiment. This method has become common in evaluating the efficiency of protein synthesis simultaneously by multiple mRNA variants. However, its potential is not confined to this area. In the presented review, a comparative analysis of the Flow-seq method and other alternative approaches used for translation efficiency evaluation of mRNA was carried out; the features of its application and the results obtained by Flow-seq were also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. S. Komarova
- Institute of Functional Genomics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119234 Russia
| | - O. A. Dontsova
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119234 Russia
- Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, 121205 Russia
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119234 Russia
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 117437 Russia
| | - D. V. Pyshnyi
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, 630090 Russia
| | - M. R. Kabilov
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, 630090 Russia
| | - P. V. Sergiev
- Institute of Functional Genomics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119234 Russia
- Department of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119234 Russia
- Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, 121205 Russia
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119234 Russia
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9
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Standard Genetic Code vs. Supersymmetry Genetic Code – Alphabetical table vs. physicochemical table. Biosystems 2022; 218:104695. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2022.104695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Abstract
Codon usage bias is the preferential or non-random use of synonymous codons, a ubiquitous phenomenon observed in bacteria, plants and animals. Different species have consistent and characteristic codon biases. Codon bias varies not only with species, family or group within kingdom, but also between the genes within an organism. Codon usage bias has evolved through mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift in various organisms. Genome composition, GC content, expression level and length of genes, position and context of codons in the genes, recombination rates, mRNA folding, and tRNA abundance and interactions are some factors influencing codon bias. The factors shaping codon bias may also be involved in evolution of the universal genetic code. Codon-usage bias is critical factor determining gene expression and cellular function by influencing diverse processes such as RNA processing, protein translation and protein folding. Codon usage bias reflects the origin, mutation patterns and evolution of the species or genes. Investigations of codon bias patterns in genomes can reveal phylogenetic relationships between organisms, horizontal gene transfers, molecular evolution of genes and identify selective forces that drive their evolution. Most important application of codon bias analysis is in the design of transgenes, to increase gene expression levels through codon optimization, for development of transgenic crops. The review gives an overview of deviations of genetic code, factors influencing codon usage or bias, codon usage bias of nuclear and organellar genes, computational methods to determine codon usage and the significance as well as applications of codon usage analysis in biological research, with emphasis on plants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Varatharajalu Udayasuriyan
- Department of Biotechnology, Centre for Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, 641003, India
| | - Vijaipal Bhadana
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology, Ranchi, Jharkhand, 834010, India
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Zrimec J, Buric F, Kokina M, Garcia V, Zelezniak A. Learning the Regulatory Code of Gene Expression. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:673363. [PMID: 34179082 PMCID: PMC8223075 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.673363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Data-driven machine learning is the method of choice for predicting molecular phenotypes from nucleotide sequence, modeling gene expression events including protein-DNA binding, chromatin states as well as mRNA and protein levels. Deep neural networks automatically learn informative sequence representations and interpreting them enables us to improve our understanding of the regulatory code governing gene expression. Here, we review the latest developments that apply shallow or deep learning to quantify molecular phenotypes and decode the cis-regulatory grammar from prokaryotic and eukaryotic sequencing data. Our approach is to build from the ground up, first focusing on the initiating protein-DNA interactions, then specific coding and non-coding regions, and finally on advances that combine multiple parts of the gene and mRNA regulatory structures, achieving unprecedented performance. We thus provide a quantitative view of gene expression regulation from nucleotide sequence, concluding with an information-centric overview of the central dogma of molecular biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Zrimec
- Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Filip Buric
- Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Mariia Kokina
- Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Victor Garcia
- School of Life Sciences and Facility Management, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Aleksej Zelezniak
- Department of Biology and Biological Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Science for Life Laboratory, Stockholm, Sweden
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12
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Determining amino acid scores of the genetic code table: Complementarity, structure, function and evolution. Biosystems 2020; 187:104026. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2019.104026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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