Neisseria gonorrhoeae FA1090 carries genes encoding two classes of Vsr endonucleases

Neisseria gonorrhoeae: DNA Repair Systems and Their Role in Pathogenesis

Neisseria gonorrhoeae (a Gram-negative diplococcus) is a human pathogen and causative agent of gonorrhea, a sexually transmitted infection. The bacterium uses various approaches for adapting to environmental conditions and multiplying efficiently in the human body, such as regulation of expression of gene expression of surface proteins and lipooligosaccharides (e.g., expression of various forms of pilin). The systems of DNA repair play an important role in the bacterium ability to survive in the host body. This review describes DNA repair systems of N. gonorrhoeae and their role in the pathogenicity of this bacterium. A special attention is paid to the mismatch repair system (MMR) and functioning of the MutS and MutL proteins, as well as to the role of these proteins in regulation of the pilin antigenic variation of the N. gonorrhoeae pathogen.

Genetic variation regulates the activation and specificity of Restriction-Modification systems in Neisseria gonorrhoeae

Restriction-Modification systems (RMS) are one of the main mechanisms of defence against foreign DNA invasion and can have an important role in the regulation of gene expression. The obligate human pathogen Neisseria gonorrhoeae carries one of the highest loads of RMS in its genome; between 13 to 15 of the three main types. Previous work has described their organization in the reference genome FA1090 and has inferred the associated methylated motifs. Here, we studied the structure of RMS and target methylated motifs in 25 gonococcal strains sequenced with Single Molecule Real-Time (SMRT) technology, which provides data on DNA modification. The results showed a variable picture of active RMS in different strains, with phase variation switching the activity of Type III RMS, and both the activity and specificity of a Type I RMS. Interestingly, the Dam methylase was found in place of the NgoAXI endonuclease in two of the strains, despite being previously thought to be absent in the gonococcus. We also identified the real methylation target of NgoAXII as 5′-GCAGA-3′, different from that previously described. Results from this work give further insights into the diversity and dynamics of RMS and methylation patterns in N. gonorrhoeae.

Activity of Vsr endonucleases encoded by Neisseria gonorrhoeae FA1090 is influenced by MutL and MutS proteins

Background

The functioning of DNA repair systems is based on correct interactions between proteins involved in DNA repair. Very Short Patch (VSP) repair is a DNA repair system that corrects mismatches resulting from the deamination of 5-methylcytosine. The key enzyme in the VSP system is Vsr endonuclease, which can cleave mismatched DNA independently of accessory proteins. Until now, in vivo activity has only been shown for V.EcoKDcm - the only Vsr endonuclease in Escherichia coli. Additionally, the VSP system of E. coli is the only one for which interactions between proteins of the system have been demonstrated. Neisseria gonorrhoeae FA1090 is the first bacterium that we previously demonstrated to encode two active in vitro Vsr endonucleases: V.NgoAXIII and V.NgoAXIV.

Results

We elucidate the mutator phenotype of N. gonorrhoeae mutants with disrupted genes encoding V.NgoAXIII or V.NgoAXIV endonuclease. Furthermore, we investigate the interactions between gonococcal Vsr endonucleases and MutL and MutS proteins. The Vsr endonucleases physically interact with gonococcal MutL protein but not with MutS protein. In the presence of the MutL protein, the efficiency of DNA cleavage by both V.NgoAXIII and V.NgoAXIV endonucleases increases, resulting in a decrease in the amount of Vsr enzyme required to complete digestion of mismatched DNA. Both Vsr endonucleases are also stimulated in vitro by the MutL protein of E. coli. In turn, the gonococcal MutS protein hinders DNA cleavage by the Vsr endonucleases. However, this effect is overridden in the presence of MutL, and furthermore, the simultaneous presence of MutL and MutS causes an increase in the efficiency of DNA cleavage by the Vsr endonucleases compared to the reaction catalyzed by V.NgoAXIII or V.NgoAXIV alone.

Conclusions

For the first time, interactions between proteins of the DNA repair system encoded by N. gonorrhoeae that are responsible for the correction of mismatches resulting from the 5-methylcytosine deamination were identified. The increase in activity of Vsr endonucleases in the presence of MutL protein could allow for reduced synthesis of the Vsr endonucleases in cells, and the susceptibility of gonococcal Vsr endonucleases on MutL protein of E. coli implies a universal mechanism of Vsr stimulation by MutL protein.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12866-018-1243-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Characterization of Vsr endonucleases from Neisseria meningitidis

DNA methylation is a common modification occurring in all living organisms. 5-methylcytosine, which is produced in a reaction catalysed by C5-methyltransferases, can spontaneously undergo deamination to thymine, leading to the formation of T:G mismatches and C→T transitions. In Escherichia coli K-12, such mismatches are corrected by the Very Short Patch (VSP) repair system, with Vsr endonuclease as the key enzyme. Neisseria meningitidis possesses genes that encode DNA methyltransferases, including C5-methyltransferases. We report on the mutagenic potential of the meningococcal C5-methyltransferases M.NmeDI and M.NmeAI resulting from deamination of 5-methylcytosine. N. meningitidis strains also possess genes encoding potential Vsr endonucleases. Phylogenetic analysis of meningococcal Vsr endonucleases indicates that they belong to two phylogenetically distinct groups (type I or type II Vsr endonucleases). N. meningitidis serogroup C (FAM18) is a representative of meningococcal strains that carry two Vsr endonuclease genes (V.Nme18IIP and V.Nme18VIP). The V.Nme18VIP (type II) endonuclease cut DNA containing T:G mismatches in all tested nucleotide contexts. V.Nme18IIP (type I) is not active in vitro, but the change of Tyr69 to His69 in the amino acid sequence of the protein restores its endonucleolytic activity. The presence of tyrosine in position 69 is a characteristic feature of type I meningococcal Vsr proteins, while type II Vsr endonucleases possess His69. In addition to the T:G mismatches, V.Nme18VIP and V.Nme18IIPY69H recognize and digest DNA with T:T or U:G mispairs. Thus, for the first time, we demonstrate that the VSP repair system may have a wider significance and broader substrate specificity than DNA lesions that only result from 5-methylcytosine deamination.

DNA Methylation Assessed by SMRT Sequencing Is Linked to Mutations in Neisseria meningitidis Isolates

The Gram-negative bacterium Neisseria meningitidis features extensive genetic variability. To present, proposed virulence genotypes are also detected in isolates from asymptomatic carriers, indicating more complex mechanisms underlying variable colonization modes of N. meningitidis. We applied the Single Molecule, Real-Time (SMRT) sequencing method from Pacific Biosciences to assess the genome-wide DNA modification profiles of two genetically related N. meningitidis strains, both of serogroup A. The resulting DNA methylomes revealed clear divergences, represented by the detection of shared and of strain-specific DNA methylation target motifs. The positional distribution of these methylated target sites within the genomic sequences displayed clear biases, which suggest a functional role of DNA methylation related to the regulation of genes. DNA methylation in N. meningitidis has a likely underestimated potential for variability, as evidenced by a careful analysis of the ORF status of a panel of confirmed and predicted DNA methyltransferase genes in an extended collection of N. meningitidis strains of serogroup A. Based on high coverage short sequence reads, we find phase variability as a major contributor to the variability in DNA methylation. Taking into account the phase variable loci, the inferred functional status of DNA methyltransferase genes matched the observed methylation profiles. Towards an elucidation of presently incompletely characterized functional consequences of DNA methylation in N. meningitidis, we reveal a prominent colocalization of methylated bases with Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) detected within our genomic sequence collection. As a novel observation we report increased mutability also at 6mA methylated nucleotides, complementing mutational hotspots previously described at 5mC methylated nucleotides. These findings suggest a more diverse role of DNA methylation and Restriction-Modification (RM) systems in the evolution of prokaryotic genomes.

The dam replacing gene product enhances Neisseria gonorrhoeae FA1090 viability and biofilm formation

Many Neisseriaceae do not exhibit Dam methyltransferase activity and, instead of the dam gene, possess drg (dam replacing gene) inserted in the leuS/dam locus. The drg locus in Neisseria gonorrhoeae FA1090 has a lower GC-pairs content (40.5%) compared to the whole genome of N. gonorrhoeae FA1090 (52%). The gonococcal drg gene encodes a DNA endonuclease Drg, with GmeATC specificity. Disruption of drg or insertion of the dam gene in gonococcal genome changes the level of expression of genes as shown by transcriptome analysis. For the drg-deficient N. gonorrhoeae mutant, a total of 195 (8.94% of the total gene pool) genes exhibited an altered expression compared to the wt strain by at least 1.5 fold. In dam-expressing N. gonorrhoeae mutant, the expression of 240 genes (11% of total genes) was deregulated. Most of these deregulated genes were involved in translation, DNA repair, membrane biogenesis and energy production as shown by cluster of orthologous group analysis. In vivo, the inactivation of drg gene causes the decrease of the number of live neisserial cells and long lag phase of growth. The insertion of dam gene instead of drg locus restores cell viability. We have also shown that presence of the drg gene product is important for N. gonorrhoeae FA1090 in adhesion, including human epithelial cells, and biofilm formation. Biofilm produced by drg-deficient strain is formed by more dispersed cells, compared to this one formed by parental strain as shown by scanning electron and confocal microscopy. Also adherence assays show a significantly smaller biomass of formed biofilm (OD₅₇₀ = 0.242 ± 0.038) for drg-deficient strain, compared to wild-type strain (OD₅₇₀ = 0.378 ± 0.057). Dam-expressing gonococcal cells produce slightly weaker biofilm with cells embedded in an extracellular matrix. This strain has also a five times reduced ability for adhesion to human epithelial cells. In this context, the presence of Drg is more advantageous for N. gonorrhoeae biology than Dam presence.

Diverse functions of restriction-modification systems in addition to cellular defense

Restriction-modification (R-M) systems are ubiquitous and are often considered primitive immune systems in bacteria. Their diversity and prevalence across the prokaryotic kingdom are an indication of their success as a defense mechanism against invading genomes. However, their cellular defense function does not adequately explain the basis for their immaculate specificity in sequence recognition and nonuniform distribution, ranging from none to too many, in diverse species. The present review deals with new developments which provide insights into the roles of these enzymes in other aspects of cellular function. In this review, emphasis is placed on novel hypotheses and various findings that have not yet been dealt with in a critical review. Emerging studies indicate their role in various cellular processes other than host defense, virulence, and even controlling the rate of evolution of the organism. We also discuss how R-M systems could have successfully evolved and be involved in additional cellular portfolios, thereby increasing the relative fitness of their hosts in the population.