Thioredoxin 1 participates in the activity of the Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium pathogenicity island 2 type III secretion system

From ubiquity to specificity: The diverse functions of bacterial thioredoxin systems

The thioredoxin (Trx) system, found universally, is responsible for the regeneration of reversibly oxidized protein thiols in living cells. This system is made up of a Trx and a Trx reductase, and it plays a central role in maintaining thiol-based redox homeostasis by reducing oxidized protein thiols, such as disulfide bonds in proteins. Some Trxs also possess a chaperone function that is independent of thiol-disulfide exchange, in addition to their thiol-disulfide reductase activity. These two activities of the Trx system are involved in numerous physiological processes in bacteria. This review describes the diverse physiological roles of the Trx system that have emerged throughout bacterial evolution. The Trx system is essential for responding to oxidative and nitrosative stress. Beyond this primary function, the Trx system also participates in redox regulation and signal transduction, and in controlling metabolism, motility, biofilm formation, and virulence. This range of functions has evolved alongside the diversity of bacterial lifestyles and their specific constraints. This evolution can be characterized by the multiplication of the systems and by the specialization of cofactors or targets to adapt to the constraints of atypical lifestyles, such as photosynthesis, insect endosymbiosis, or spore-forming bacteria.

Promiscuity of response regulators for thioredoxin steers bacterial virulence

The exquisite specificity between a sensor kinase and its cognate response regulator ensures faithful partner selectivity within two-component pairs concurrently firing in a single bacterium, minimizing crosstalk with other members of this conserved family of paralogous proteins. We show that conserved hydrophobic and charged residues on the surface of thioredoxin serve as a docking station for structurally diverse response regulators. Using the OmpR protein, we identify residues in the flexible linker and the C-terminal β-hairpin that enable associations of this archetypical response regulator with thioredoxin, but are dispensable for interactions of this transcription factor to its cognate sensor kinase EnvZ, DNA or RNA polymerase. Here we show that the promiscuous interactions of response regulators with thioredoxin foster the flow of information through otherwise highly dedicated two-component signaling systems, thereby enabling both the transcription of Salmonella pathogenicity island-2 genes as well as growth of this intracellular bacterium in macrophages and mice.

Evolution of Copper Homeostasis and Virulence in Salmonella

Salmonella enterica sv. Typhimurium modulates the expression of factors essential for virulence, contributing to its survival against the surge of copper (Cu) in the Salmonella-containing vacuole. This bactericidal host innate immune component primarily targets the bacterial envelope, where most cuproproteins are localized. While in most enteric species periplasmic Cu homeostasis is maintained by the CusR/CusS-controlled CusCFBA efflux system encoded in the cus locus, we noticed that these genes were lost from the Salmonella-core genome. At the same time, Salmonella acquired cueP, coding for a periplasmic Cu chaperone. As cus, cueP was shown to be essential for bacterial survival in a copper-rich environment under anaerobiosis, suggesting that it can functionally substitute the CusCFBA system. In the present study, the whole Escherichia coli cus locus was reintroduced to the chromosome of the Salmonella wild-type or the ΔcueP strain. While the integrated cus locus did not affect Cu resistance under aerobic conditions, it increases Cu tolerance under anaerobiosis, irrespective of the presence or absence of cueP. In contrast to the Cus system, CueP expression is higher at high copper concentrations and persisted over time, suggesting separate functions. Finally, we observed that, regardless of the presence or absence of cus, a mutant deleted of cueP shows a deficiency in replication inside macrophages compared to the wild-type strain. Our results demonstrate that CueP and CusCFBA exert redundant functions for metal resistance, but not for intracellular survival, and therefore for the virulence of this pathogen.

The extracellular thioredoxin Etrx3 is required for macrophage infection in Rhodococcus equi

Rhodococcus equi is an intracellular veterinary pathogen that is becoming resistant to current antibiotherapy. Genes involved in preserving redox homeostasis could be promising targets for the development of novel anti-infectives. Here, we studied the role of an extracellular thioredoxin (Etrx3/REQ_13520) in the resistance to phagocytosis. An etrx3-null mutant strain was unable to survive within macrophages, whereas the complementation with the etrx3 gene restored its intracellular survival rate. In addition, the deletion of etrx3 conferred to R. equi a high susceptibility to sodium hypochlorite. Our results suggest that Etrx3 is essential for the resistance of R. equi to specific oxidative agents.

Responses of Acidobacteria Granulicella sp. WH15 to High Carbon Revealed by Integrated Omics Analyses

The phylum Acidobacteria is widely distributed in soils, but few representatives have been cultured. In general, Acidobacteria are oligotrophs and exhibit slow growth under laboratory conditions. We sequenced the genome of Granulicella sp. WH15, a strain obtained from decaying wood, and determined the bacterial transcriptome and proteome under growth in poor medium with a low or high concentration of sugar. We detected the presence of 217 carbohydrate-associated enzymes in the genome of strain WH15. Integrated analysis of the transcriptomic and proteomic profiles showed that high sugar triggered a stress response. As part of this response, transcripts related to cell wall stress, such as sigma factor σW and toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems, were upregulated, as were several proteins involved in detoxification and repair, including MdtA and OprM. KEGG metabolic pathway analysis indicated the repression of carbon metabolism (especially the pentose phosphate pathway) and the reduction of protein synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, and cell division, suggesting the arrest of cell activity and growth. In summary, the stress response of Granulicella sp. WH15 induced by the presence of a high sugar concentration in the medium resulted in the intensification of secretion functions to eliminate toxic compounds and the reallocation of resources to cell maintenance instead of growth.

Thioredoxin H (TrxH) contributes to adversity adaptation and pathogenicity of Edwardsiella piscicida

Thioredoxins (Trxs) play an important role in defending against oxidative stress and keeping disulfide bonding correct to maintain protein function. Edwardsiella piscicida, a severe fish pathogen, has been shown to encode several thioredoxins including TrxA, TrxC, and TrxH, but their biological roles remain unknown. In this study, we characterized TrxH of E. piscicida (named TrxH_Ep) and examined its expression and function. TrxH_Ep is composed of 125 residues and possesses typical thioredoxin H motifs. Expression of trxH_Ep was upregulated under conditions of oxidative stress, iron starvation, low pH, and during infection of host cells. trxH_Ep expression was also regulated by ferric uptake regulator (Fur), an important global regulatory of E. piscicida. Compared to the wild type TX01, a markerless trxH_Ep in-frame mutant strain TX01∆trxH exhibited markedly compromised tolerance of the pathogen to hydrogen peroxide, acid stress, and iron deficiency. Deletion of trxH_Ep significantly retarded bacterial biofilm growth and decreased resistance against serum killing. Pathogenicity analysis shows that the inactivation of trxH_Ep significantly impaired the ability of E. piscicida to invade host cells, reproduce in macrophages, and infect host tissues. Introduction of a trans-expressed trxH gene restored the lost virulence of TX01∆trxH. There is likely to be a complex relationship of functional complementation or expression regulation between TrxH and another two thioredoxins, TrxA and TrxC, of E. piscicida. This is the first functional report of TrxH in fish pathogens, and the findings suggest that TrxH_Ep is essential for coping with adverse circumstances and contributes to host infection of E. piscicida.

Transient Receptor Potential Canonical Channels 4 and 5 Mediate Escherichia coli-Derived Thioredoxin Effects in Lipopolysaccharide-Injected Mice

Thioredoxin plays an essential role in bacterial antioxidant machinery and virulence; however, its regulatory actions in the host are less well understood. Reduced human Trx activates transient receptor potential canonical 5 (TRPC5) in inflammation, but there is no evidence of whether these receptors mediate bacterial thioredoxin effects in the host. Importantly, TRPC5 can form functional complexes with other subunits such as TRPC4. Herein, E. coli-derived thioredoxin induced mortality in lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) injected mice, accompanied by reduction of leukocyte accumulation, regulation of cytokine release into the peritoneum, and impairment of peritoneal macrophage-mediated phagocytosis. Dual TRPC4/TRPC5 blockade by ML204 increased mortality and hypothermia in thioredoxin-treated LPS mice but preserved macrophage's ability to phagocytose. TRPC5 deletion did not alter body temperature but promoted additional accumulation of peritoneal leukocytes and inflammatory mediator release in thioredoxin-administered LPS mice. Thioredoxin diminished macrophage-mediated phagocytosis in wild-type but not TRPC5 knockout animals. TRPC5 ablation did not affect LPS-induced responses. However, ML204 caused mortality associated with exacerbated hypothermia and decreased peritoneal leukocyte numbers and cytokines in LPS-injected mice. These results suggest that bacterial thioredoxin effects under LPS stimuli are mediated by TRPC4 and TRPC5, shedding light on the additional mechanisms of bacterial virulence and on the pathophysiological roles of these receptors.

Antioxidant Defense by Thioredoxin Can Occur Independently of Canonical Thiol-Disulfide Oxidoreductase Enzymatic Activity

The thiol-disulfide oxidoreductase CXXC catalytic domain of thioredoxin contributes to antioxidant defense in phylogenetically diverse organisms. We find that although the oxidoreductase activity of thioredoxin-1 protects Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium from hydrogen peroxide in vitro, it does not appear to contribute to Salmonella's antioxidant defenses in vivo. Nonetheless, thioredoxin-1 defends Salmonella from oxidative stress resulting from NADPH phagocyte oxidase macrophage expression during the innate immune response in mice. Thioredoxin-1 binds to the flexible linker, which connects the receiver and effector domains of SsrB, thereby keeping this response regulator in the soluble fraction. Thioredoxin-1, independently of thiol-disulfide exchange, activates intracellular SPI2 gene transcription required for Salmonella resistance to both reactive species generated by NADPH phagocyte oxidase and oxygen-independent lysosomal host defenses. These findings suggest that the horizontally acquired virulence determinant SsrB is regulated post-translationally by ancestrally present thioredoxin.

Salmonella-how a metabolic generalist adopts an intracellular lifestyle during infection

The human-pathogenic bacterium Salmonella enterica adjusts and adapts to different environments while attempting colonization. In the course of infection nutrient availabilities change drastically. New techniques, "-omics" data and subsequent integration by systems biology improve our understanding of these changes. We review changes in metabolism focusing on amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism. Furthermore, the adaptation process is associated with the activation of genes of the Salmonella pathogenicity islands (SPIs). Anti-infective strategies have to take these insights into account and include metabolic and other strategies. Salmonella infections will remain a challenge for infection biology.

Modulation of biofilm-formation in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium by the periplasmic DsbA/DsbB oxidoreductase system requires the GGDEF-EAL domain protein STM3615

In Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium), biofilm-formation is controlled by the cytoplasmic intracellular small-molecular second messenger cyclic 3′, 5′-di- guanosine monophosphate (c-di-GMP) through the activities of GGDEF and EAL domain proteins. Here we describe that deleting either dsbA or dsbB, respectively encoding a periplasmic protein disulfide oxidase and a cytoplasmic membrane disulfide oxidoreductase, resulted in increased biofilm-formation on solid medium. This increased biofilm-formation, defined as a red, dry and rough (rdar) colony morphotype, paralleled with enhanced expression of the biofilm master regulator CsgD and the biofilm-associated fimbrial subunit CsgA. Deleting csgD in either dsb mutant abrogated the enhanced biofilm-formation. Likewise, overexpression of the c-di-GMP phosphodiesterase YhjH, or mutationally inactivating the CsgD activator EAL-domain protein YdiV, reduced biofilm-formation in either of the dsb mutants. Intriguingly, deleting the GGDEF-EAL domain protein gene STM3615 (yhjK), previously not connected to rdar morphotype development, also abrogated the escalated rdar morphotype formation in dsb mutant backgrounds. Enhanced biofilm-formation in dsb mutants was furthermore annulled by exposure to the protein disulfide catalyst copper chloride. When analyzed for the effect of exogenous reducing stress on biofilm-formation, both dsb mutants initially showed an escalated rdar morphotype development that later dissolved to reveal a smooth mucoid colony morphotype. From these results we conclude that biofilm-development in S. Typhimurium is affected by periplasmic protein disulphide bond status through CsgD, and discuss the involvement of selected GGDEF/EAL domain protein(s) as signaling mediators.

Comparative proteome analysis of two Streptococcus agalactiae strains from cultured tilapia with different virulence

Streptococcus agalactiae is a major piscine pathogen, which causes significant morbidity and mortality among numerous fish species, and results in huge economic losses to aquaculture. Many S. agalactiae strains showing different virulence characteristics have been isolated from infected tilapia in different geographical regions throughout South China in the recent years, including natural attenuated S. agalactiae strain TFJ0901 and virulent S. agalactiae strain THN0901. In the present study, survival of tilapia challenged with S. agalactiae strain TFJ0901 and THN0901 (10(7)CFU/fish) were 93.3% and 13.3%, respectively. Moreover, there are severe lesions of the examined tissues in tilapia infected with strain THN0901, but no significant histopathological changes were observed in tilapia infected with the strain TFJ0901. In order to elucidate the factors responsible for the invasive potential of S. agalactiae between two strains TFJ0901 and THN0901, a comparative proteome analysis was applied to identify the different protein expression profiles between the two strains. 506 and 508 cellular protein spots of S. agalactiae TFJ0901 and THN0901 were separated by two dimensional electrophoresis, respectively. And 34 strain-specific spots, corresponding to 27 proteins, were identified successfully by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Among them, 23 proteins presented exclusively in S. agalactiae TFJ0901 or THN0901, and the other 4 proteins presented in different isomeric forms between TFJ0901 and THN0901. Most of the strain-specific proteins were just involved in metabolic pathways, while 7 of them were presumed to be responsible for the virulence differences of S. agalactiae strain TFJ0901 and THN0901, including molecular chaperone DnaJ, dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase, thioredoxin, manganese-dependent inorganic pyrophosphatase, elongation factor Tu, bleomycin resistance protein and cell division protein DivIVA. These virulence-associated proteins may contribute to identify new diagnostic markers and help to understand the pathogenesis of S. agalactiae.

Oxidoreductases that act as conditional virulence suppressors in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium

In Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, oxidoreductases of the thioredoxin superfamily contribute to bacterial invasiveness, intracellular replication and to the virulence in BALB/c mice as well as in the soil nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. The scsABCD gene cluster, present in many but not all enteric bacteria, codes for four putative oxidoreductases of the thioredoxin superfamily. Here we have analyzed the potential role of the scs genes in oxidative stress tolerance and virulence in S. Typhimurium. An scsABCD deletion mutant showed moderate sensitization to the redox-active transition metal ion copper and increased protein carbonylation upon exposure to hydrogen peroxide. Still, the scsABCD mutant was not significantly affected for invasiveness or intracellular replication in respectively cultured epithelial or macrophage-like cells. However, we noted a significant copper chloride sensitivity of SPI1 T3SS mediated invasiveness that strongly depended on the presence of the scs genes. The scsABCD deletion mutant was not attenuated in animal infection models. In contrast, the mutant showed a moderate increase in its competitive index upon intraperitoneal challenge and enhanced invasiveness in small intestinal ileal loops of BALB/c mice. Moreover, deletion of the scsABCD genes restored the invasiveness of a trxA mutant in epithelial cells and its virulence in C. elegans. Our findings thus demonstrate that the scs gene cluster conditionally affects virulence and underscore the complex interactions between oxidoreductases of the thioredoxin superfamily in maintaining host adaptation of S. Typhimurium.

Differential protein expression patterns between planktonic and biofilm cells of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis PT4 on stainless steel surface

In the present study, the proteome of a strain of S. enterica serovar Enteritidis PT4, grown either as biofilm on stainless steel surface or as free-floating (planktonic) in Brain Heart (BH) broth, was investigated in order to detect the strong differences in whole-cell protein expression patterns between the two growth styles. The proteins extracted from both types of cells were subjected to 2-D PAGE, followed by in-gel tryptic digestion, extraction, subsequent MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry (MS) analysis and finally database searches for protein identification. Using this approach, 30 proteins were identified as differentially expressed between the two growth modes on an "on-off" basis, that is, proteins that were detected in one case but not in the other. In particular, 20 and 10 proteins were identified in biofilm and planktonic-grown cells, respectively. The group of proteins whose expression was visible only during biofilm growth included proteins involved in global regulation and stress response (ArcA, BtuE, Dps, OsmY, SspA, TrxA, YbbN and YhbO), nutrient transport (Crr, DppA, Fur and SufC), degradation and energy metabolism (GcvT, GpmA, RibB), detoxification (SseA and YibF), DNA metabolism (SSB), curli production (CsgF), and murein synthesis (MipA). To summarize, this study demonstrates that biofilm growth of S. Enteritidis causes distinct changes in protein expression and offers valuable new data regarding some of the proteins presumably involved in this process. The putative role of these proteins in the maintenance of a biofilm community in Salmonella and other bacteria is discussed.

Pathogenicity of Salmonella enterica in Caenorhabditis elegans relies on disseminated oxidative stress in the infected host

Feeding Caenorhabditis elegans with Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium significantly shortens the lifespan of the nematode. S. Typhimurium-infected C. elegans, stained with 2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate which fluoresces upon exposure to reactive oxygen species, revealed intestinal luminal staining that along with the time of infection progressed to a strong staining in the hypodermal tissues of the nematode. Still, we could not detect invasion beyond the nematode's intestinal epithelium at any stage of the infection. A similar dispersion of oxidative response was also noted in nematodes infected with S. Dublin, but not with non-pathogenic Escherichia coli or the defined pathogen Burkholderia thailandensis. Addition of catalase or the reductant ascorbic acid significantly restored the lifespan of S. Typhimurium-infected nematodes. Mutational inactivation of the bacterial thioredoxin 1 resulted in total ablation of the hypodermal oxidative response to infection, and in a strong attenuation of virulence. Virulence of the thioredoxin 1 mutant was restored by trans-complementation with redox-active variants of thioredoxin 1 or, surprisingly, by exposing the thioredoxin 1 mutant to sublethal concentrations of the disulphide catalyst copper chloride prior to infection. In summary, our observations define a new aspect in virulence of S. enterica that apparently does not involve the classical invasive or intracellular phenotype of the pathogen, but that depends on the ability to provoke overwhelming systemic oxidative stress in the host through the redox activity of bacterial thioredoxin 1.

Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium trxA mutants are protective against virulent challenge and induce less inflammation than the live-attenuated vaccine strain SL3261

In Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, trxA encodes thioredoxin 1, a small, soluble protein with disulfide reductase activity, which catalyzes thiol disulfide redox reactions in a variety of substrate proteins. Thioredoxins are involved as antioxidants in defense against oxidative stresses, such as exposure to hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radicals. We have made a defined, complete deletion of trxA in the mouse-virulent S. Typhimurium strain SL1344 (SL1344 trxA), replacing the gene with a kanamycin resistance gene cassette. SL1344 trxA was attenuated for virulence in BALB/c mice by the oral and intravenous routes and when used in immunization experiments provided protection against challenge with the virulent parent strain. SL1344 trxA induced less inflammation in murine spleens and livers than SL3261, the aroA mutant, live attenuated vaccine strain. The reduced splenomegaly observed following infection with SL1344 trxA was partially attributed to a reduction in the number of both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells and B lymphocytes in the spleen and reduced infiltration by CD11b(+) cells into the spleen compared with spleens from mice infected with SL3261. This less severe pathological response indicates that a trxA mutation might be used to reduce reactogenicity of live attenuated vaccine strains. We tested this by deleting trxA in SL3261. SL3261 trxA was also less inflammatory than SL3261 but was slightly less effective as a vaccine strain than either the SL3261 parent strain or SL1344 trxA.