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Keuter S, Koch H, Sass K, Wegen S, Lee N, Lücker S, Spieck E. Some like it cold: The cellular organization and physiological limits of cold-tolerant nitrite-oxidizing Nitrotoga. Environ Microbiol 2022; 24:2059-2077. [PMID: 35229435 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.15958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Chemolithoautotrophic production of nitrate is accomplished by the polyphyletic functional group of nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB). A widely distributed and important NOB clade in nitrogen removal processes at low temperatures is Nitrotoga, which however remains understudied due to the scarcity of cultivated representatives. Here, we present physiological, ultrastructural and genomic features of Nitrotoga strains from various habitats, including the first marine species enriched from an aquaculture system. Immunocytochemical analyses localized the nitrite-oxidizing enzyme machinery in the wide irregularly shaped periplasm, apparently without contact to the cytoplasmic membrane, confirming previous genomic data suggesting a soluble nature. Interestingly, in two strains we also observed multicellular complexes with a shared periplasmic space, which seem to form through incomplete cell division and might enhance fitness or survival. Physiological tests revealed differing tolerance limits towards dissolved inorganic nitrogen concentrations and confirmed the generally psychrotolerant nature of the genus was. Moreover, comparative analysis of 15 Nitrotoga genomes showed, e.g., a unique gene repertoire of the marine strain that could be advantageous in its natural habitat and confirmed the lack of genes for assimilatory nitrite reduction in a strain found to require ammonium for growth. Overall, these novel insights largely broaden our knowledge of Nitrotoga and elucidate the metabolic variability, physiological limits and thus potential ecological roles of this group of nitrite oxidizers. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Keuter
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Hanna Koch
- Department of Microbiology, RIBES, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Katharina Sass
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Simone Wegen
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Natuschka Lee
- Department of Ecology and Environmental Science and Research Infrastructure Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH), Chemical Biological Centre, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.,Department of Microbiology, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Sebastian Lücker
- Department of Microbiology, RIBES, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Eva Spieck
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
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Effect of bio-engineering on size, shape, composition and rigidity of bacterial microcompartments. Sci Rep 2016; 6:36899. [PMID: 27845382 PMCID: PMC5109269 DOI: 10.1038/srep36899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial microcompartments (BMCs) are proteinaceous organelles that are found in a broad range of bacteria and are composed of an outer shell that encases an enzyme cargo representing a specific metabolic process. The outer shell is made from a number of different proteins that form hexameric and pentameric tiles, which interact to allow the formation of a polyhedral edifice. We have previously shown that the Citrobacter freundii BMC associated with 1,2-propanediol utilization can be transferred into Escherichia coli to generate a recombinant BMC and that empty BMCs can be formed from just the shell proteins alone. Herein, a detailed structural and proteomic characterization of the wild type BMC is compared to the recombinant BMC and a number of empty BMC variants by 2D-gel electrophoresis, mass spectrometry, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Specifically, it is shown that the wild type BMC and the recombinant BMC are similar in terms of composition, size, shape and mechanical properties, whereas the empty BMC variants are shown to be smaller, hollow and less malleable.
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Abstract
This review summarizes research performed over the last 23 years on the genetics, enzyme structures and functions, and regulation of the expression of the genes encoding functions involved in adenosylcobalamin (AdoCbl, or coenzyme B12) biosynthesis. It also discusses the role of coenzyme B12 in the physiology of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium LT2 and Escherichia coli. John Roth's seminal contributions to the field of coenzyme B12 biosynthesis research brought the power of classical and molecular genetic, biochemical, and structural approaches to bear on the extremely challenging problem of dissecting the steps of what has turned out to be one of the most complex biosynthetic pathways known. In E. coli and serovar Typhimurium, uro'gen III represents the first branch point in the pathway, where the routes for cobalamin and siroheme synthesis diverge from that for heme synthesis. The cobalamin biosynthetic pathway in P. denitrificans was the first to be elucidated, but it was soon realized that there are at least two routes for cobalamin biosynthesis, representing aerobic and anaerobic variations. The expression of the AdoCbl biosynthetic operon is complex and is modulated at different levels. At the transcriptional level, a sensor response regulator protein activates the transcription of the operon in response to 1,2-Pdl in the environment. Serovar Typhimurium and E. coli use ethanolamine as a source of carbon, nitrogen, and energy. In addition, and unlike E. coli, serovar Typhimurium can also grow on 1,2-Pdl as the sole source of carbon and energy.
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Rae BD, Long BM, Badger MR, Price GD. Functions, compositions, and evolution of the two types of carboxysomes: polyhedral microcompartments that facilitate CO2 fixation in cyanobacteria and some proteobacteria. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2013; 77:357-79. [PMID: 24006469 PMCID: PMC3811607 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00061-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 242] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are the globally dominant photoautotrophic lineage. Their success is dependent on a set of adaptations collectively termed the CO2-concentrating mechanism (CCM). The purpose of the CCM is to support effective CO2 fixation by enhancing the chemical conditions in the vicinity of the primary CO2-fixing enzyme, D-ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RubisCO), to promote the carboxylase reaction and suppress the oxygenase reaction. In cyanobacteria and some proteobacteria, this is achieved by encapsulation of RubisCO within carboxysomes, which are examples of a group of proteinaceous bodies called bacterial microcompartments. Carboxysomes encapsulate the CO2-fixing enzyme within the selectively permeable protein shell and simultaneously encapsulate a carbonic anhydrase enzyme for CO2 supply from a cytoplasmic bicarbonate pool. These bodies appear to have arisen twice and undergone a process of convergent evolution. While the gross structures of all known carboxysomes are ostensibly very similar, with shared gross features such as a selectively permeable shell layer, each type of carboxysome encapsulates a phyletically distinct form of RubisCO enzyme. Furthermore, the specific proteins forming structures such as the protein shell or the inner RubisCO matrix are not identical between carboxysome types. Each type has evolutionarily distinct forms of the same proteins, as well as proteins that are entirely unrelated to one another. In light of recent developments in the study of carboxysome structure and function, we present this review to summarize the knowledge of the structure and function of both types of carboxysome. We also endeavor to cast light on differing evolutionary trajectories which may have led to the differences observed in extant carboxysomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin D Rae
- Division of Plant Science, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
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Yeates TO, Kerfeld CA, Heinhorst S, Cannon GC, Shively JM. Protein-based organelles in bacteria: carboxysomes and related microcompartments. Nat Rev Microbiol 2009; 6:681-91. [PMID: 18679172 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro1913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 325] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Many bacteria contain intracellular microcompartments with outer shells that are composed of thousands of protein subunits and interiors that are filled with functionally related enzymes. These microcompartments serve as organelles by sequestering specific metabolic pathways in bacterial cells. The carboxysome, a prototypical bacterial microcompartment that is found in cyanobacteria and some chemoautotrophs, encapsulates ribulose-l,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO) and carbonic anhydrase, and thereby enhances carbon fixation by elevating the levels of CO2 in the vicinity of RuBisCO. Evolutionarily related, but functionally distinct, microcompartments are present in diverse bacteria. Although bacterial microcompartments were first observed more than 40 years ago, a detailed understanding of how they function is only now beginning to emerge.
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Cannon GC, Bradburne CE, Aldrich HC, Baker SH, Heinhorst S, Shively JM. Microcompartments in prokaryotes: carboxysomes and related polyhedra. Appl Environ Microbiol 2001; 67:5351-61. [PMID: 11722879 PMCID: PMC93316 DOI: 10.1128/aem.67.12.5351-5361.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- G C Cannon
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi 39406-5043, USA.
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Kofoid E, Rappleye C, Stojiljkovic I, Roth J. The 17-gene ethanolamine (eut) operon of Salmonella typhimurium encodes five homologues of carboxysome shell proteins. J Bacteriol 1999; 181:5317-29. [PMID: 10464203 PMCID: PMC94038 DOI: 10.1128/jb.181.17.5317-5329.1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The eut operon of Salmonella typhimurium encodes proteins involved in the cobalamin-dependent degradation of ethanolamine. Previous genetic analysis revealed six eut genes that are needed for aerobic use of ethanolamine; one (eutR), encodes a positive regulator which mediates induction of the operon by vitamin B12 plus ethanolamine. The DNA sequence of the eut operon included 17 genes, suggesting a more complex pathway than that revealed genetically. We have correlated an open reading frame in the sequence with each of the previously identified genes. Nonpolar insertion and deletion mutations made with the Tn10-derived transposable element T-POP showed that at least 10 of the 11 previously undetected eut genes have no Eut phenotype under the conditions tested. Of the dispensable eut genes, five encode apparent homologues of proteins that serve (in other organisms) as shell proteins of the carboxysome. This bacterial organelle, found in photosynthetic and sulfur-oxidizing bacteria, may contribute to CO2 fixation by concentrating CO2 and excluding oxygen. The presence of these homologues in the eut operon of Salmonella suggests that CO2 fixation may be a feature of ethanolamine catabolism in Salmonella.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Kofoid
- Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, USA
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English RS, Lorbach SC, Qin X, Shively JM. Isolation and characterization of a carboxysome shell gene from Thiobacillus neapolitanus. Mol Microbiol 1994; 12:647-54. [PMID: 7934888 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.1994.tb01052.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The gene coding for the major carboxysome shell peptide (csoS1) from Thiobacillus neapolitanus has been isolated and sequenced. Oligonucleotide primers for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of the 5' end of the gene were made possible by amino acid sequencing of the N-terminal residues of the shell peptide. A 41 bp PCR product was used as a probe to isolate the gene. The deduced amino acid composition of the 216 bp gene shows a high degree of hydrophobicity. The gene is located within a series of three repeated regions of DNA and appears to have arisen via gene duplication. The transcript of csoS1 is approximately 400 bases in length. The shell peptide shares significant homology with Synechococcus open reading frames implicated in carboxysome structure/assembly. These open reading frames and csoS1 are related and are probably members of a carboxysome gene family.
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Affiliation(s)
- R S English
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, South Carolina 29634-1903
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Sand W, Rohde K, Sobotke B, Zenneck C. Evaluation of
Leptospirillum ferrooxidans
for Leaching. Appl Environ Microbiol 1992; 58:85-92. [PMID: 16348642 PMCID: PMC195176 DOI: 10.1128/aem.58.1.85-92.1992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The importance of
Leptospirillum ferrooxidans
for leach processes has been evaluated by studying the lithotrophic flora of three mine biotopes and a heap leaching operation, by percolation experiments with inoculated, sterilized ore, and by morphological, physiological, and genetic investigations of pure and mixed cultures of
L. ferrooxidans, Thiobacillus ferrooxidans
, and
Thiobacillus thiooxidans.
In biotopes of 20°C or above,
Leptospirillum
-like bacteria are as abundant as
T. ferrooxidans.
Leptospirilli represent at least one-half of the ferrous-iron-oxidizing population. Percolation experiments confirmed this result. Leptospirilli were as numerous as
T. ferrooxidans.
At reduced temperatures, the generation times of leptospirilli increase more so than those of
T. ferrooxidans.
At 14°C,
Leptospirillum
grows slowly and
T. ferrooxidans
dominates the population. Physiological investigations indicate that
L. ferrooxidans
is a strict chemolithoautotroph, metabolizing only ferrous iron and pyrite. Even an addition of 0.05% (wt/vol) yeast extract inhibited its growth. The maximum ferrous-iron-oxidizing activity of
L. ferrooxidans
amounts to about 40% of the activity of
T. ferrooxidans.
After growth on sulfidic ore, both species exhibit reduced iron-oxidizing activities,
L. ferrooxidans
exhibiting one-third and
T. ferrooxidans
exhibiting one-seventh of their maximum activities. Surprisingly, the absolute values are similar. For indirect leaching,
L. ferrooxidans
is as important as
T. ferrooxidans.
This was confirmed by the results of percolation experiments.
L. ferrooxidans
together with
T. thiooxidans
mobilized metals at least as well as
T. ferrooxidans
did. The best results were obtained with a mixed culture of all three species.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Sand
- Mikrobiologie, Universität Hamburg, Ohnhorststrasse 18, D-2000 Hamburg 52, Germany
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In situ assay of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase in Thiobacillus neapolitanus. J Bacteriol 1991; 173:1565-8. [PMID: 1995596 PMCID: PMC207297 DOI: 10.1128/jb.173.4.1565-1568.1991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Cells permeabilized with chloroform yielded ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO) activities nearly equal to those of cell extracts, thus indicating that both cytoplasmic and carboxysomal RuBisCO are functional in situ. The carboxysomal and cytoplasmic RuBisCO both form the CO2-Mg2(+)-enzyme ternary complex, as evidenced by stabilization with 2-C-carboxy-D-arabinitol-1,5-bisphosphate (CABP), a potent competitive inhibitor of RuBisCO. The data are consistent with the hypothesis that the carboxysome is functional in carbon dioxide fixation.
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Affiliation(s)
- G A Codd
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Dundee, UK
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Shively JM, Bryant DA, Fuller RC, Konopka AE, Stevens SE, Strohl WR. Functional inclusions in prokaryotic cells. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CYTOLOGY 1988; 113:35-100. [PMID: 3068183 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7696(08)60846-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J M Shively
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, South Carolina 29634
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17
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Lanaras T, Hawthornthwaite A, Codd G. Localization of carbonic anhydrase in the cyanobacteriumChlorogloeopsis fritschii. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1985. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1985.tb01612.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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Cannon GC, Shively JM. Characterization of a homogenous preparation of carboxysomes from Thiobacillus neapolitanus. Arch Microbiol 1983. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00429407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Lanaras T, Codd GA. Variations in ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase protein levels, activities and subcellular distribution during photoautotrophic batch culture of Chlorogloeopsis fritschii. PLANTA 1982; 154:284-288. [PMID: 24276073 DOI: 10.1007/bf00387876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/1981] [Accepted: 12/22/1981] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) carboxylase is present in the cytoplasm and carboxysomes (polyhedral bodies) of the cyanobacterium Chlorogloeopsis fritschii. In vitro enzyme activities have been measured throughout photoautotrophic batch culture, together with RuBP carboxylase protein concentrations, determined by rocket immunoelectrophoresis. Enzyme activities and protein levels in the cytoplasmic and carboxysomal fractions varied in an apparently inverse manner during growth. The RuBP carboxylase activities per unit enzyme protein were maximal in late lag phase/early exponential phase for both cellular enzyme pools. Both rates per unit enzyme protein declined during exponential phase, cytoplasmic enzyme activity remaining consistently higher than that of the carboxysomal enzyme. Activities per unit cytoplasmic and carboxysomal enzyme protein showed very low, similar rates in late stationary phase and death phase. Dialysis experiments indicated that such changes were not due to interference in activity assays by soluble endogenous effectors. Major shifts in the subcellular distribution of RuBP carboxylase protein were found versus culture age, enzyme protein levels being predominantly carboxysomal in lag phase, mainly soluble in exponential phase and then mainly carboxysomal again in stationary/death phase. The data are discussed in terms of carboxysome function and the question of control of RuBP carboxylase synthesis in cyanobacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Lanaras
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Dundee, DD1 4HN, Dundee, UK
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Structural and immunoelectrophoretic comparison of soluble and particulate ribulose bisphosphate carboxylases from the cyanobacterium Chlorogloeopsis fritschii. Arch Microbiol 1981. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00459521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Lanaras T, Codd GA. Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase and polyhedral bodies of Chlorogloeopsis fritschii. PLANTA 1981; 153:279-285. [PMID: 24276834 DOI: 10.1007/bf00383900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/1981] [Accepted: 07/23/1981] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) carboxylase (EC 4.1.1.39) activity was approximately equally distributed between supernatant and pellet fractions produced by differential centrifugation of disrupted cells of Chlorogloeopsis fritschii. Low ionic strength buffer favoured the recovery of particulate RuBP carboxylase. Density gradient centrifugation of resuspended cell-free particulate material produced a single band of RuBP carboxylase activity, which was associated with the polyhedral body fraction, rather than with the thylakoids or other observable particles. Isolated polyhedral body stability was improved by density gradient centrifugation through gradients of Percoll plus sucrose in buffer, which yielded apparently intact polyhedral bodies. These were 100 to 150 nm in diameter and contained ring-shaped, 12 nm diameter particles. It is inferred that the C. fritschii polyhedral bodies are carboxysomes. Sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of SDS-dissociated polyhedral bodies revealed 8 major polypeptides. The most abundant, with molecular weights of 52,000 and 13,000, correspond with the large and small subunits, respectively, of RuBP carboxylase.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Lanaras
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University, DD1 4HN, Dundee, U.K
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Quantification and intracellular distribution of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase in Thiobacillus neapolitanus, as related to possible functions of carboxysomes. Arch Microbiol 1981. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00406463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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25
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d-Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase and polyhedral inclusion bodies in Nitrosomonas spec. Arch Microbiol 1981. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00422530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Beudeker RF, Cannon GC, Kuenen JG, Shively JM. Relations between d-ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase, carboxysomes and CO2 fixing capacity in the obligate chemolithotroph Thiobacillus neapolitanus grown under different limitations in the chemostat. Arch Microbiol 1980. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00427725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Abstract
Carboxysomes were isolated from Nitrobacter winogradskyi and Nitrobacter agilis. The icosahedral particles contained double-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). In the presence of ethidium bromide and cesium chloride, the particle-bound DNA had a buoyant density of rho 25 = 1.701 g/cm3. Electron microscopy revealed the DNA to be a 14-micron circular molecule.
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28
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Harrison D, Rogers L, Smith A. d-Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase of the nitrifying bacterium, Nitrobacter agilis. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1979. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1979.tb04275.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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McFadden BA, Purohit K. Chemosynthetic, photosynthetic, and cyanobacterial ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase. BASIC LIFE SCIENCES 1978; 11:179-207. [PMID: 106835 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4684-8106-8_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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