Two control systems modulate the level of glutaminyl-tRNA synthetase in Escherichia coli

Competition of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases for tRNA ensures the accuracy of aminoacylation

The accuracy of protein biosynthesis rests on the high fidelity with which aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases discriminate between tRNAs. Correct aminoacylation depends not only on identity elements (nucleotides in certain positions) in tRNA (1), but also on competition between different synthetases for a given tRNA (2). Here we describe in vivo and in vitro experiments which demonstrate how variations in the levels of synthetases and tRNA affect the accuracy of aminoacylation. We show in vivo that concurrent overexpression of Escherichia coli tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase abolishes misacylation of supF tRNA(Tyr) with glutamine in vivo by overproduced glutaminyl-tRNA synthetase. In an in vitro competition assay, we have confirmed that the overproduction mischarging phenomenon observed in vivo is due to competition between the synthetases at the level of aminoacylation. Likewise, we have been able to examine the role competition plays in the identity of a non-suppressor tRNA of ambiguous identity, tRNA(Glu). Finally, with this assay, we show that the identity of a tRNA and the accuracy with which it is recognized depend on the relative affinities of the synthetases for the tRNA. The in vitro competition assay represents a general method of obtaining qualitative information on tRNA identity in a competitive environment (usually only found in vivo) during a defined step in protein biosynthesis, aminoacylation. In addition, we show that the discriminator base (position 73) and the first base of the anticodon are important for recognition by E. coli tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase.

Discovering cis-regulatory RNAs in Shewanella genomes by Support Vector Machines

An increasing number of cis-regulatory RNA elements have been found to regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally in various biological processes in bacterial systems. Effective computational tools for large-scale identification of novel regulatory RNAs are strongly desired to facilitate our exploration of gene regulation mechanisms and regulatory networks. We present a new computational program named RSSVM (RNA Sampler+Support Vector Machine), which employs Support Vector Machines (SVMs) for efficient identification of functional RNA motifs from random RNA secondary structures. RSSVM uses a set of distinctive features to represent the common RNA secondary structure and structural alignment predicted by RNA Sampler, a tool for accurate common RNA secondary structure prediction, and is trained with functional RNAs from a variety of bacterial RNA motif/gene families covering a wide range of sequence identities. When tested on a large number of known and random RNA motifs, RSSVM shows a significantly higher sensitivity than other leading RNA identification programs while maintaining the same false positive rate. RSSVM performs particularly well on sets with low sequence identities. The combination of RNA Sampler and RSSVM provides a new, fast, and efficient pipeline for large-scale discovery of regulatory RNA motifs. We applied RSSVM to multiple Shewanella genomes and identified putative regulatory RNA motifs in the 5′ untranslated regions (UTRs) in S. oneidensis, an important bacterial organism with extraordinary respiratory and metal reducing abilities and great potential for bioremediation and alternative energy generation. From 1002 sets of 5′-UTRs of orthologous operons, we identified 166 putative regulatory RNA motifs, including 17 of the 19 known RNA motifs from Rfam, an additional 21 RNA motifs that are supported by literature evidence, 72 RNA motifs overlapping predicted transcription terminators or attenuators, and other candidate regulatory RNA motifs. Our study provides a list of promising novel regulatory RNA motifs potentially involved in post-transcriptional gene regulation. Combined with the previous cis-regulatory DNA motif study in S. oneidensis, this genome-wide discovery of cis-regulatory RNA motifs may offer more comprehensive views of gene regulation at a different level in this organism. The RSSVM software, predictions, and analysis results on Shewanella genomes are available at http://ural.wustl.edu/resources.html#RSSVM.

RNA is remarkably versatile, acting not only as messengers to transfer genetic information from DNA to protein but also as critical structural components and catalytic enzymes in the cell. More intriguingly, RNA elements in messenger RNAs have been widely found in bacteria to control the expression of their downstream genes. The functions of these RNA elements are intrinsically linked to their secondary structures, which are usually conserved across multiple closely related species during evolution and often shared by genes in the same metabolic pathways. We developed a new computational approach to find putative functional RNA elements by looking for conserved RNA secondary structures that are distinguished from random RNA secondary structures in the orthologous RNA sequences from related species. We applied this approach to multiple Shewanella genomes and predicted putative regulatory RNA elements in Shewanella oneidensis, a bacterium that has extraordinary respiratory and metal reducing abilities and great potential for bioremediation and alternative energy generation. Our findings not only recovered many RNA elements that are known or supported by literature evidence but also included exciting novel RNA elements for further exploration.

Competition of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases for tRNA ensures the accuracy of aminoacylation

The accuracy of protein biosynthesis rests on the high fidelity with which aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases discriminate between tRNAs. Correct aminoacylation depends not only on identity elements (nucleotides in certain positions) in tRNA (1), but also on competition between different synthetases for a given tRNA (2). Here we describe in vivo and in vitro experiments which demonstrate how variations in the levels of synthetases and tRNA affect the accuracy of aminoacylation. We show in vivo that concurrent overexpression of Escherichia coli tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase abolishes misacylation of supF tRNA(Tyr) with glutamine in vivo by overproduced glutaminyl-tRNA synthetase. In an in vitro competition assay, we have confirmed that the overproduction mischarging phenomenon observed in vivo is due to competition between the synthetases at the level of aminoacylation. Likewise, we have been able to examine the role competition plays in the identity of a non-suppressor tRNA of ambiguous identity, tRNA(Glu). Finally, with this assay, we show that the identity of a tRNA and the accuracy with which it is recognized depend on the relative affinities of the synthetases for the tRNA. The in vitro competition assay represents a general method of obtaining qualitative information on tRNA identity in a competitive environment (usually only found in vivo) during a defined step in protein biosynthesis, aminoacylation. In addition, we show that the discriminator base (position 73) and the first base of the anticodon are important for recognition by E. coli tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase.

Closely spaced and divergent promoters for an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase gene and a tRNA operon in Escherichia coli. Transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of gltX, valU and alaW

The transcription of the gltX gene encoding the glutamyl-tRNA synthetase and of the adjacent valU and alaW tRNA operons of Escherichia coli K-12 has been studied. The alaW operon containing two tRNA(GGCAla) genes, is 800 base-pairs downstream from the gltX terminator and is transcribed from the same strand. The valU operon, containing three tRNA(UACVal) and one tRNA(UUULys) (the wild-type allele of supN) genes, is adjacent to gltX and is transcribed from the opposite strand. Its only promoter is upstream from the gltX promoters. The gltX gene transcript is monocistronic and its transcription initiates at three promoters, P1, P2 and P3. The transcripts from one or more of these promoters are processed by RNase E to generate two major species of gltX mRNA, which are stable and whose relative abundance varies with growth conditions. The stability of gltX mRNA decreases in an RNase E- strain and its level increases with growth rate about three times more than that of the glutamyl-tRNA synthetase. The 5' region of these mRNAs can adopt a stable secondary structure (close to the ribosome binding site) that is similar to the anticodon and part of the dihydroU stems and loops of tRNA(Glu), and which might be involved in translational regulation of GluRS synthesis. The gltX and valU promoters share the same AT-rich and bent upstream region, whose position coincides with the position of the upstream activating sequences of tRNA and rRNA promoters to which they are similar. This suggests that gltX and valU share transcriptional regulatory mechanisms.

Regulation of the nuclear genes encoding the cytoplasmic and mitochondrial leucyl-tRNA synthetases of Neurospora crassa

We show that the nuclear genes for the cytoplasmic and mitochondrial leucyl-tRNA synthetase (LeuRS) of Neurospora crassa are distinct in their encoded proteins, codon usage, mRNA levels, and regulation. The 4.2-kilobase-pair region representing the structural gene for cytoplasmic LeuRS and flanking regions has been sequenced. The positions of the 5' and 3' ends of mRNA and of a single 62-base-pair intron have been mapped. The methionine-initiated open reading frame encoded a protein of 1,123 amino acids and displayed a strong codon bias. Although cytoplasmic LeuRS shares with mitochondrial LeuRS some general features common to most aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, there is little amino acid sequence similarity between them, mRNA levels for cytoplasmic LeuRS were much higher than those for mitochondrial LeuRS. This observation and the strong codon bias in the cytoplasmic LeuRS gene may contribute to a greater abundance of cytoplasmic LeuRS than mitochondrial LeuRS. The genes for cytoplasmic and mitochondrial LeuRS are regulated independently. The cytoplasmic LeuRS gene is regulated by the cross-pathway control system in N. crassa, which is analogous to general amino acid control in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The cytoplasmic LeuRS mRNA levels are induced by amino acid starvation resulting from the addition of aminotriazole. Part of this increase is due to utilization of new transcription start sites. In contrast, the mitochondrial LeuRS gene is not induced by amino acid limitation. However, the mitochondrial LeuRS mRNA levels did increase dramatically upon inhibition of mitochondrial protein synthesis by chloramphenicol or ethidium bromide or in the temperature-sensitive strain leu-5 carrying a mutation in the mitochondrial LeuRS structural gene.

Regulation of the nuclear genes encoding the cytoplasmic and mitochondrial leucyl-tRNA synthetases of Neurospora crassa

We show that the nuclear genes for the cytoplasmic and mitochondrial leucyl-tRNA synthetase (LeuRS) of Neurospora crassa are distinct in their encoded proteins, codon usage, mRNA levels, and regulation. The 4.2-kilobase-pair region representing the structural gene for cytoplasmic LeuRS and flanking regions has been sequenced. The positions of the 5' and 3' ends of mRNA and of a single 62-base-pair intron have been mapped. The methionine-initiated open reading frame encoded a protein of 1,123 amino acids and displayed a strong codon bias. Although cytoplasmic LeuRS shares with mitochondrial LeuRS some general features common to most aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, there is little amino acid sequence similarity between them, mRNA levels for cytoplasmic LeuRS were much higher than those for mitochondrial LeuRS. This observation and the strong codon bias in the cytoplasmic LeuRS gene may contribute to a greater abundance of cytoplasmic LeuRS than mitochondrial LeuRS. The genes for cytoplasmic and mitochondrial LeuRS are regulated independently. The cytoplasmic LeuRS gene is regulated by the cross-pathway control system in N. crassa, which is analogous to general amino acid control in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The cytoplasmic LeuRS mRNA levels are induced by amino acid starvation resulting from the addition of aminotriazole. Part of this increase is due to utilization of new transcription start sites. In contrast, the mitochondrial LeuRS gene is not induced by amino acid limitation. However, the mitochondrial LeuRS mRNA levels did increase dramatically upon inhibition of mitochondrial protein synthesis by chloramphenicol or ethidium bromide or in the temperature-sensitive strain leu-5 carrying a mutation in the mitochondrial LeuRS structural gene.

Accuracy of in vivo aminoacylation requires proper balance of tRNA and aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase

The fidelity of protein biosynthesis in any cell rests on the accuracy of aminoacylation of tRNA. The exquisite specificity of this reaction is critically dependent on the correct recognition of tRNA by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. It is shown here that the relative concentrations of a tRNA and its cognate aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase are normally well balanced and crucial for maintenance of accurate aminoacylation. When Escherichia coli Gln-tRNA synthetase is overproduced in vivo, it incorrectly acylates the supF amber suppressor tRNA(Tyr) with Gln. This effect is abolished when the intracellular concentration of the cognate tRNA(Gln2) is also elevate. These data indicate that the presence of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase and the cognate tRNAs in complexed form, which requires the proper balance of the two macromolecules, is critical in maintaining the fidelity of protein biosynthesis. Thus, limits exist on the relative levels of tRNAs and aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases within a cell.

Control of the levels of alanyl-, glycyl-, and seryl-tRNA synthetases in the silkgland of Bombyx mori

We have examined the levels of glycyl-, alanyl-, and seryl-tRNA synthetases and the levels of their corresponding translatable mRNAs in the posterior and middle silkglands of the silkworm, Bombyx mori. Analysis of Western blots reveals that the change in the abundance of these enzymes during the fifth instar in crude extracts derived from posterior and middle silkgland correlates with changes in enzymatic activity; most of the change in activity for seryl- and alanyl-tRNA synthetases can be accounted for by the corresponding change in enzyme concentration, while the apparent specific activity of glycyl-tRNA synthetase appears to be elevated in the posterior silkgland. Accompanying the changes in enzyme activity and enzyme concentration are changes in the levels of the corresponding mRNAs as determined by immunoprecipitation of in vitro translation products. The levels of all three enzymes are 10 to 20 times higher in the posterior and middle silkglands than in ovarian tissue. A form of alanyl-tRNA synthetase with a slightly higher apparent molecular weight is detected in the posterior silkgland early in the fifth instar and in ovarian tissue.