Plasmid marker rescue transformation proceeds by breakage-reunion in Bacillus subtilis

Viral SPP1 DNA is infectious in naturally competent Bacillus subtilis cells: inter- and intramolecular recombination pathways

A proteolyzed bacteriophage (phage) might release its DNA into the environment. Here, we define the recombination functions required to resurrect an infective lytic phage from inactive environmental viral DNA in naturally competent Bacillus subtilis cells. Using phage SPP1 DNA, a model that accounts for the obtained data is proposed (i) the DNA uptake apparatus takes up environmental SPP1 DNA, fragments it, and incorporates into the cytosol different linear single-stranded (ss) DNA molecules shorter than genome-length; (ii) the SsbA-DprA mediator loads RecA onto any fragmented linear SPP1 ssDNA, but negative modulators (RecX and RecU) promote a net RecA disassembly from these ssDNAs not homologous to the host genome; (iii) single strand annealing (SSA) proteins, DprA and RecO, anneal the SsbA- or SsbB-coated complementary strands, yielding tailed SPP1 duplex intermediates; (iv) RecA polymerized on these tailed intermediates invades a homologous region in another incomplete molecule, and in concert with RecD2 helicase, reconstitutes a complete linear phage genome with redundant regions at the ends of the molecule; and (v) DprA, RecO or viral G35P SSA, may catalyze the annealing of these terminally redundant regions, alone or with the help of an exonuclease, to produce a circular unit-length duplex viral genome ready to initiate replication.

RecA Regulation by RecU and DprA During Bacillus subtilis Natural Plasmid Transformation

Natural plasmid transformation plays an important role in the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes in bacteria. During this process, Bacillus subtilis RecA physically interacts with RecU, RecX, and DprA. These three proteins are required for plasmid transformation, but RecA is not. In vitro, DprA recruits RecA onto SsbA-coated single-stranded (ss) DNA, whereas RecX inhibits RecA filament formation, leading to net filament disassembly. We show that a null recA (ΔrecA) mutation suppresses the plasmid transformation defect of competent ΔrecU cells, and that RecU is essential for both chromosomal and plasmid transformation in the ΔrecX context. RecU inhibits RecA filament growth and facilitates RecA disassembly from preformed filaments. Increasing SsbA concentrations additively contributes to RecU-mediated inhibition of RecA filament extension. DprA is necessary and sufficient to counteract the negative effect of both RecU and SsbA on RecA filament growth onto ssDNA. DprA-SsbA activates RecA to catalyze DNA strand exchange in the presence of RecU, but this effect was not observed if RecU was added prior to RecA. We propose that DprA contributes to RecA filament growth onto any internalized SsbA-coated ssDNA. When the ssDNA is homologous to the recipient, DprA antagonizes the inhibitory effect of RecU on RecA filament growth and helps RecA to catalyze chromosomal transformation. On the contrary, RecU promotes RecA filament disassembly from a heterologous (plasmid) ssDNA, overcoming an unsuccessful homology search and favoring plasmid transformation. The DprA–DprA interaction may promote strand annealing upon binding to the complementary plasmid strands and facilitating thereby plasmid transformation rather than through a mediation of RecA filament growth.

A binding site for activation by the Bacillus subtilis AhrC protein, a repressor/activator of arginine metabolism

In Bacillus subtilis, the AhrC protein represses genes encoding enzymes of arginine biosynthesis and activates those mediating its catabolism. To determine how this repressor also functions as an activator, we attempted to clone catabolic genes by searching for insertions of the Tn917-lacZ transposon that express AhrC-dependent, arginine-inducible beta-galactosidase activity. One such isolate was obtained. The region upstream of lacZ was subcloned in Escherichia coli in such a way that it could be replaced in the B. subtilis chromosome after appropriate manipulation. Analysis of exonuclease III-derived deletions located an AhrC-dependent, arginine-inducible promoter to within a ca. 1.9 kb fragment. The sequence revealed: the 3' end of an ORF homologous to gdh genes encoding glutamate dehydrogenase, with highest homology to the homologue from Clostridium difficile; the 5' end of an ORF homologous to a Saccharomyces cerevisiae gene encoding delta 1-pyrroline 5-carboxylate dehydrogenase (P5CDH), an enzyme of arginine catabolism; and just upstream of the latter, a sequence with homology to known AhrC binding sites in the upstream part of the biosynthetic argCJBD-cpa-F cluster. The same region has also been sequenced by others as part of the B. subtilis genome sequencing project, revealing that the P5CDH gene is the first in a cluster termed rocABC. Restriction fragments containing the putative AhrC-binding sequence, but not those lacking it, showed retarded electrophoretic mobility in the presence of purified AhrC. A 277 bp AhrC-binding fragment also showed anomalous mobility in the absence of AhrC, consistent with its being intrinsically bent. DNAse I footprinting localized AhrC binding to bp -16/-22 to +1 (the transcription startpoint). Such a location for an activator binding site, i.e. overlapping the transcription start, is unusual.

Genetic recombination in Bacillus subtilis 168: effect of recN, recF, recH and addAB mutations on DNA repair and recombination

A recN- (recN1) strain of Bacillus subtilis was constructed. The effects of this and recF, recH and addAB mutations on recombination proficiency were tested. Mutations in the recN, recF, recH and addAB genes, when present in an otherwise Rec+ B. subtilis strain, did not affect genetic exchange. Strains carrying different combinations of mutations in these genes were constructed and examined for their sensitivity to 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide (4NQO) and recombination proficiency. The recH mutation did not affect the 4NQO sensitivity of recN and recF cells and it only marginally affected that of addA addB cells. However, it reduced genetic recombination in these cells 10(2)- to 10(4)-fold. The addA addB mutations increased the 4NQO sensitivity of recF and recN cells, but completely blocked genetic recombination of recF cells and marginally affected recombination in recN cells. The recN mutation did not affect the recombinational capacity of recF cells. These data indicate that the recN gene product is required for DNA repair and recombination and that the recF, recH and addAB genes provide overlapping activities that compensate for the effects of single mutants proficiency. We proposed that the recF, recH, recB and addA gene products define four different epistatic groups.

Genetic competence in Bacillus subtilis

Genetic competence may be defined as a physiological state enabling a bacterial culture to bind and take up high-molecular-weight exogenous DNA (transformation). In Bacillus subtilis, competence develops postexponentially and only in certain media. In addition, only a minority of the cells in a competent culture become competent, and these are physiologically distinct. Thus, competence is subject to three regulatory modalities: growth stage specific, nutritionally responsive, and cell type specific. This review summarizes the present state of knowledge concerning competence in B. subtilis. The study of genes required for transformability has permitted their classification into two broad categories. Late competence genes are expressed under competence control and specify products required for the binding, uptake, and processing of transforming DNA. Regulatory genes specify products that are needed for the expression of the late genes. Several of the late competence gene products have been shown to be membrane localized, and others are predicted to be membrane associated on the basis of amino acid sequence data. Several of these predicted protein sequences show a striking resemblance to gene products that are involved in the export and/or assembly of extracellular proteins and structures in gram-negative organisms. This observation is consistent with the idea that the late products are directly involved in transport of DNA and is equally consistent with the notion that they play a morphogenetic role in the assembly of a transport apparatus. The competence regulatory apparatus constitutes an elaborate signal transduction system that senses and interprets environmental information and passes this information to the competence-specific transcriptional machinery. Many of the regulatory gene products have been identified and partially characterized, and their interactions have been studied genetically and in some cases biochemically as well. These include several histidine kinase and response regulator members of the bacterial two-component signal transduction machinery, as well as a number of known transcriptionally active proteins. Results of genetic studies are consistent with the notion that the regulatory proteins interact in a hierarchical way to make up a regulatory pathway, and it is possible to propose a provisional scheme for the organization of this pathway. It is remarkable that almost all of the regulatory gene products appear to play roles in the control of various forms of postexponential expression in addition to competence, e.g., sporulation, degradative-enzyme production, motility, and antibiotic production. This has led to the notion of a signal transduction network which transduces environmental information to determine the levels and timing of expression of the ultimate products characteristic of each of these systems.

Novel plasmid marker rescue transformation system for molecular cloning in Bacillus subtilis enabling direct selection of recombinants

A versatile plasmid marker rescue transformation system was developed for homology-facilitated cloning in Bacillus subtilis. It is based on the highly efficient host-vector system 6GM15-pHPS9, which allows the direct selection of recombinants by means of beta-galactosidase alpha-complementation. The system offers several advantages over previously described cloning systems: (1) the convenient direct selection of recombinants; (2) the ability to effectively transform B. subtilis competent cells with plasmid monomers, which allows the forced cloning of DNA fragments with high efficiency; (3) the availability of 6 unique target sites, which can be used for direct clone selection, SphI, NdeI, NheI, BamHI, SmaI and EcoRI; and (4) the rapid segregational loss of the helper plasmid from the transformed cells.