Rhizobium meliloti Fix L is an oxygen sensor and regulates R. meliloti nifA and fixK genes differently in Escherichia coli

Proteolytic control of FixT by the Lon protease impacts FixLJ signaling in Caulobacter crescentus

Responding to changes in oxygen levels is critical for aerobic microbes. In Caulobacter crescentus, low oxygen is sensed by the FixL-FixJ two-component system which induces multiple genes, including those involved in heme biosynthesis, to accommodate microaerobic conditions. The FixLJ inhibitor FixT is also induced under low oxygen conditions and is degraded by the Lon protease when the oxygen levels are sufficient, which together provides negative feedback proposed to adjust FixLJ signaling thresholds during changing conditions. Here, we address whether degradation of FixT by the Lon protease contributes to phenotypic defects associated with loss of Lon. We find that ∆lon strains are deficient in FixLJ-dependent heme biosynthesis, consistent with elevated FixT levels as deletion of fixT suppresses this defect. Transcriptomics validate this result as, along with heme biosynthesis, there is diminished expression of many FixL-activated genes in ∆lon. However, stabilization of FixT in ∆lon strains does not contribute to restoring any known Lon-related fitness defect, such as cell morphology defects or stress sensitivity. In fact, cells lacking both FixT and Lon are compromised in viability during growth in standard aerobic conditions. Our work highlights the complexity of protease-dependent regulation of transcription factors and explains the molecular basis of defective heme accumulation in Lon-deficient Caulobacter.

IMPORTANCE

The Lon protease shapes protein quality control, signaling pathways, and stress responses in many bacteria species. Loss of Lon often results in multiple phenotypic consequences. In this work, we found a connection between the Lon protease and deficiencies in heme accumulation that then led to our finding of a global change in gene expression due in part to degradation of a regulator of the hypoxic response. However, loss of degradation of this regulator did not explain other phenotypes associated with Lon deficiencies demonstrating the complex and multiple pathways that this highly conserved protease can impact.

Genetic Circuit Design in Rhizobacteria

Genetically engineered plants hold enormous promise for tackling global food security and agricultural sustainability challenges. However, construction of plant-based genetic circuitry is constrained by a lack of well-characterized genetic parts and circuit design rules. In contrast, advances in bacterial synthetic biology have yielded a wealth of sensors, actuators, and other tools that can be used to build bacterial circuitry. As root-colonizing bacteria (rhizobacteria) exert substantial influence over plant health and growth, genetic circuit design in these microorganisms can be used to indirectly engineer plants and accelerate the design-build-test-learn cycle. Here, we outline genetic parts and best practices for designing rhizobacterial circuits, with an emphasis on sensors, actuators, and chassis species that can be used to monitor/control rhizosphere and plant processes.

Translating New Synthetic Biology Advances for Biosensing Into the Earth and Environmental Sciences

The rapid diversification of synthetic biology tools holds promise in making some classically hard-to-solve environmental problems tractable. Here we review longstanding problems in the Earth and environmental sciences that could be addressed using engineered microbes as micron-scale sensors (biosensors). Biosensors can offer new perspectives on open questions, including understanding microbial behaviors in heterogeneous matrices like soils, sediments, and wastewater systems, tracking cryptic element cycling in the Earth system, and establishing the dynamics of microbe-microbe, microbe-plant, and microbe-material interactions. Before these new tools can reach their potential, however, a suite of biological parts and microbial chassis appropriate for environmental conditions must be developed by the synthetic biology community. This includes diversifying sensing modules to obtain information relevant to environmental questions, creating output signals that allow dynamic reporting from hard-to-image environmental materials, and tuning these sensors so that they reliably function long enough to be useful for environmental studies. Finally, ethical questions related to the use of synthetic biosensors in environmental applications are discussed.

Exploring Legume-Rhizobia Symbiotic Models for Waterlogging Tolerance

Unexpected and increasingly frequent extreme precipitation events result in soil flooding or waterlogging. Legumes have the capacity to establish a symbiotic relationship with endosymbiotic atmospheric dinitrogen-fixing rhizobia, thus contributing to natural nitrogen soil enrichment and reducing the need for chemical fertilization. The impact of waterlogging on nitrogen fixation and legume productivity needs to be considered for crop improvement. This review focuses on the legumes-rhizobia symbiotic models. We aim to summarize the mechanisms underlying symbiosis establishment, nodule development and functioning under waterlogging. The mechanisms of oxygen sensing of the host plant and symbiotic partner are considered in view of recent scientific advances.

Rhizobia: from saprophytes to endosymbionts

Rhizobia are some of the best-studied plant microbiota. These oligotrophic Alphaproteobacteria or Betaproteobacteria form symbioses with their legume hosts. Rhizobia must exist in soil and compete with other members of the microbiota before infecting legumes and forming N₂-fixing bacteroids. These dramatic lifestyle and developmental changes are underpinned by large genomes and even more complex pan-genomes, which encompass the whole population and are subject to rapid genetic exchange. The ability to respond to plant signals and chemoattractants and to colonize nutrient-rich roots are crucial for the competitive success of these bacteria. The availability of a large body of genomic, physiological, biochemical and ecological studies makes rhizobia unique models for investigating community interactions and plant colonization.

Site-Specific Ser/Thr/Tyr Phosphoproteome of Sinorhizobium meliloti at Stationary Phase

Sinorhizobium meliloti, a facultative microsymbiont of alfalfa, should fine-tune its cellular processes to live saprophytically in soils characterized with limited nutrients and diverse stresses. In this study, TiO2 enrichment and LC-MS/MS were used to uncover the site-specific Ser/Thr/Tyr phosphoproteome of S. meliloti in minimum medium at stationary phase. There are a total of 96 unique phosphorylated sites, with a Ser/Thr/Tyr distribution of 63:28:5, in 77 proteins. Phosphoproteins identified in S. meliloti showed a wide distribution pattern regarding to functional categories, such as replication, transcription, translation, posttranslational modification, transport and metabolism of amino acids, carbohydrate, inorganic ion, succinoglycan etc. Ser/Thr/Tyr phosphosites identified within the conserved motif in proteins of key cellular function indicate a crucial role of phosphorylation in modulating cellular physiology. Moreover, phosphorylation in proteins involved in processes related to rhizobial adaptation was also discussed, such as those identified in SMa0114 and PhaP2 (polyhydroxybutyrate synthesis), ActR (pH stress and microaerobic adaption), SupA (potassium stress), chaperonin GroEL2 (viability and potentially symbiosis), and ExoP (succinoglycan synthesis and secretion). These Ser/Thr/Tyr phosphosites identified herein would be helpful for our further investigation and understanding of the role of phosphorylation in rhizobial physiology.

Haem-based sensors: a still growing old superfamily

The haem-based sensors are chimeric multi-domain proteins responsible for the cellular adaptive responses to environmental changes. The signal transduction is mediated by the sensing capability of the haem-binding domain, which transmits a usable signal to the cognate transmitter domain, responsible for providing the adequate answer. Four major families of haem-based sensors can be recognized, depending on the nature of the haem-binding domain: (i) the haem-binding PAS domain, (ii) the CO-sensitive carbon monoxide oxidation activator, (iii) the haem NO-binding domain, and (iv) the globin-coupled sensors. The functional classification of the haem-binding sensors is based on the activity of the transmitter domain and, traditionally, comprises: (i) sensors with aerotactic function; (ii) sensors with gene-regulating function; and (iii) sensors with unknown function. We have implemented this classification with newly identified proteins, that is, the Streptomyces avermitilis and Frankia sp. that present a C-terminal-truncated globin fused to an N-terminal cofactor-free monooxygenase, the structural-related class of non-haem globins in Bacillus subtilis, Moorella thermoacetica, and Bacillus anthracis, and a haemerythrin-coupled diguanylate cyclase in Vibrio cholerae. This review summarizes the structures, the functions, and the structure-function relationships known to date on this broad protein family. We also propose unresolved questions and new possible research approaches.

Oxygen sensing strategies in mammals and bacteria

The ability to sense and adapt to changes in pO2 is crucial for basic metabolism in most organisms, leading to elaborate pathways for sensing hypoxia (low pO2). This review focuses on the mechanisms utilized by mammals and bacteria to sense hypoxia. While responses to acute hypoxia in mammalian tissues lead to altered vascular tension, the molecular mechanism of signal transduction is not well understood. In contrast, chronic hypoxia evokes cellular responses that lead to transcriptional changes mediated by the hypoxia inducible factor (HIF), which is directly controlled by post-translational hydroxylation of HIF by the non-heme Fe(II)/αKG-dependent enzymes FIH and PHD2. Research on PHD2 and FIH is focused on developing inhibitors and understanding the links between HIF binding and the O2 reaction in these enzymes. Sulfur speciation is a putative mechanism for acute O2-sensing, with special focus on the role of H2S. This sulfur-centered model is discussed, as are some of the directions for further refinement of this model. In contrast to mammals, bacterial O2-sensing relies on protein cofactors that either bind O2 or oxidatively decompose. The sensing modality for bacterial O2-sensors is either via altered DNA binding affinity of the sensory protein, or else due to the actions of a two-component signaling cascade. Emerging data suggests that proteins containing a hemerythrin-domain, such as FBXL5, may serve to connect iron sensing to O2-sensing in both bacteria and humans. As specific molecular machinery becomes identified, these hypoxia sensing pathways present therapeutic targets for diseases including ischemia, cancer, or bacterial infection.

Plant-activated bacterial receptor adenylate cyclases modulate epidermal infection in the Sinorhizobium meliloti-Medicago symbiosis

Legumes and soil bacteria called rhizobia have coevolved a facultative nitrogen-fixing symbiosis. Establishment of the symbiosis requires bacterial entry via root hair infection threads and, in parallel, organogenesis of nodules that subsequently are invaded by bacteria. Tight control of nodulation and infection is required to maintain the mutualistic character of the interaction. Available evidence supports a passive bacterial role in nodulation and infection after the microsymbiont has triggered the symbiotic plant developmental program. Here we identify in Sinorhizobium meliloti, the Medicago symbiont, a cAMP-signaling regulatory cascade consisting of three receptor-like adenylate cyclases, a Crp-like regulator, and a target gene of unknown function. The cascade is activated specifically by a plant signal during nodule organogenesis. Cascade inactivation results in a hyperinfection phenotype consisting of abortive epidermal infection events uncoupled from nodulation. These findings show that, in response to a plant signal, rhizobia play an active role in the control of infection. We suggest that rhizobia may modulate the plant's susceptibility to infection. This regulatory loop likely aims at optimizing legume infection.

Ligand-binding PAS domains in a genomic, cellular, and structural context

Per-Arnt-Sim (PAS) domains occur in proteins from all kingdoms of life. In the bacterial kingdom, PAS domains are commonly positioned at the amino terminus of signaling proteins such as sensor histidine kinases, cyclic-di-GMP synthases/hydrolases, and methyl-accepting chemotaxis proteins. Although these domains are highly divergent at the primary sequence level, the structures of dozens of PAS domains across a broad section of sequence space have been solved, revealing a conserved three-dimensional architecture. An all-versus-all alignment of 63 PAS structures demonstrates that the PAS domain family forms structural clades on the basis of two principal variables: (a) topological location inside or outside the plasma membrane and (b) the class of small molecule that they bind. The binding of a chemically diverse range of small-molecule metabolites is a hallmark of the PAS domain family. PAS ligand binding either functions as a primary cue to initiate a cellular signaling response or provides the domain with the capacity to respond to secondary physical or chemical signals such as gas molecules, redox potential, or photons. This review synthesizes the current state of knowledge of the structural foundations and evolution of ligand recognition and binding by PAS domains.

Carbon monoxide in biology and microbiology: surprising roles for the "Detroit perfume"

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas with a reputation for being an anthropogenic poison; there is extensive documentation of the modes of human exposure, toxicokinetics, and health effects. However, CO is also generated endogenously by heme oxygenases (HOs) in mammals and microbes, and its extraordinary biological activities are now recognized and increasingly utilized in medicine and physiology. This review introduces recent advances in CO biology and chemistry and illustrates the exciting possibilities that exist for a deeper understanding of its biological consequences. However, the microbiological literature is scant and is currently restricted to: 1) CO-metabolizing bacteria, CO oxidation by CO dehydrogenase (CODH) and the CO-sensing mechanisms that enable CO oxidation; 2) the use of CO as a heme ligand in microbial biochemistry; and 3) very limited information on how microbes respond to CO toxicity. We demonstrate how our horizons in CO biology have been extended by intense research activity in recent years in mammalian and human physiology and biochemistry. CO is one of several "new" small gas molecules that are increasingly recognized for their profound and often beneficial biological activities, the others being nitric oxide (NO) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). The chemistry of CO and other heme ligands (oxygen, NO, H2S and cyanide) and the implications for biological interactions are briefly presented. An important advance in recent years has been the development of CO-releasing molecules (CO-RMs) for aiding experimental administration of CO as an alternative to the use of CO gas. The chemical principles of CO-RM design and mechanisms of CO release from CO-RMs (dissociation, association, reduction and oxidation, photolysis, and acidification) are reviewed and we present a survey of the most commonly used CO-RMs. Amongst the most important new applications of CO in mammalian physiology and medicine are its vasoactive properties and the therapeutic potentials of CO-RMs in vascular disease, anti-inflammatory effects, CO-mediated cell signaling in apoptosis, applications in organ preservation, and the effects of CO on mitochondrial function. The very limited literature on microbial growth responses to CO and CO-RMs in vitro, and the transcriptomic and physiological consequences of microbial exposure to CO and CO-RMs are reviewed. There is current interest in CO and CO-RMs as antimicrobial agents, particularly in the control of bacterial infections. Future prospects are suggested and unanswered questions posed.

Iron-based redox switches in biology

By virtue of its unique electrochemical properties, iron makes an ideal redox active cofactor for many biologic processes. In addition to its important role in respiration, central metabolism, nitrogen fixation, and photosynthesis, iron also is used as a sensor of cellular redox status. Iron-based sensors incorporate Fe-S clusters, heme, and mononuclear iron sites to act as switches to control protein activity in response to changes in cellular redox balance. Here we provide an overview of iron-based redox sensor proteins, in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, that have been characterized at the biochemical level. Although this review emphasizes redox sensors containing Fe-S clusters, proteins that use heme or novel iron sites also are discussed.

Role of conserved F(alpha)-helix residues in the native fold and stability of the kinase-inhibited oxy state of the oxygen-sensing FixL protein from Sinorhizobium meliloti

The oxygen-sensing FixL protein from Sinorhizobium meliloti is part of the heme-PAS family of gas sensors that regulate many important signal transduction pathways in a wide variety of organisms. We examined the role of the conserved F(alpha)-9 arginine 200 and several other conserved residues on the proximal F(alpha)-helix in the heme domain of SmFixL* using site-directed mutagenesis in conjunction with UV-visible, EPR, and resonance Raman spectroscopy. The F(alpha)-helix variants R200A, E, Q, H, Y197A, and D195A were expressed at reasonable levels and purified to homogeneity. The R200I and Y201A variants did not express in observable quantities. Tyrosine 201 is crucial for forming the native protein fold of SmFixL* while Y197 and R200 are important for stabilizing the kinase-inhibited oxy state. Our results show a clear correlation between H-bond donor ability of the F(alpha)-9 side chain and the rate of heme autoxidation. This trend in conjunction with crystal structures of liganded BjFixL heme domains, show that H-bonding between the conserved F(alpha)-9 arginine and the heme-6-propionate group contributes to the kinetic stability of the kinase-inactivated, oxy state of SmFixL*.

Mass instability in isolated recombinant FixL heme domains of Bradyrhizobium japonicum

Several recombinant Bradyrhizobium japonicum FixL heme domains (BjFixLH) have been characterized and their temporal mass stabilities assessed by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. The intact heme domains all bound heme and gave normal UV-visible spectra, indicating that they were correctly assembled. Proteins produced at Washington State University included a parent 131-amino acid "full-length heme domain" (FLHD) of primary sequence T140-Q270 (BjFixLH140-270), a histidine-tagged analogue containing an N-terminal extension, and five different terminus-truncated variants. The smallest of these was a 106-amino acid "core PAS heme domain" with primary sequence T151-L256. All variants except for the smallest exhibited significant mass instability, assessed by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, that was apparent within 1-16 days standing in a sterile environment at room temperature. Two full-length heme domains expressed independently in geographically remote laboratories (Northern Illinois University and JILA, University of Colorado) also exhibited this mass instability. A mass loss of as much as approximately 25% of the starting mass has been observed, which could explain the "missing" terminal amino acids in published crystal structures. This work documents the phenomenon and its persistence despite (i) sample sterilization, (ii) protease inhibitors, (iii) primary sequence variations, (iv) the presence or absence of ferriheme ligands, and (v) the presence or absence of O2.

Sinorhizobium meliloti nifA mutant induces different gene expression profile from wild type in Alfalfa nodules

Several studies have demonstrated that the Rhizobium nifA gene is an activator of nitrogen fixation acting in nodule bacteria. To understand the effects of the Sinorhizobium meliloti nifA gene on Alfalfa, the cDNA-AFLP technique was employed to study the changes in gene expression in nifA mutant nodules. Among the approximately 3,000 transcript-derived fragments, 37 had differential expression levels. These expression levels were subsequently confirmed by reverse Northern blot and RT-polymerase chain reaction. Sequence analyses revealed that 21 cDNA fragments corresponded to genes involved in signal communication, protein degradation, nutrient metabolism, cell growth and development.

Roles of the Heme Distal Residues of FixL in O2 Sensing: A Single Convergent Structure of the Heme Moiety Is Relevant to the Downregulation of Kinase Activity

FixL is a heme-based O(2) sensor, in which the autophosphorylation is regulated by the binding of exogenous ligands such as O(2) and CN(-). In this study, mutants of the heme distal Arg200, Arg208, Ile209, Ile210, and Arg214 residues of SmFixL were characterized biochemically and physicochemically, because it has been suggested that they are significant residues in ligand-linked kinase regulation. Measurements of the autoxidation rate, affinities, and kinetics of ligand binding revealed that all of the above residues are involved in stabilization of the O(2)-heme complex of FixL. However, Arg214 was found to be the only residue that is directly relevant to the ligand-dependent regulation of kinase activity. Although the wild type and R214K and R214Q mutants exhibited normal kinase regulation, R214A, R214M, R214H, and R214Y did not. (13)C and (15)N NMR analyses for (13)C(15)N(-) bound to the truncated heme domains of the Arg214 mutants indicated that, in the wild type and the foregoing two mutants, the heme moiety is present in a single conformation, but in the latter four, the conformations fluctuate possibly because of the lack of an interaction between the iron-bound ligand and residue 214. It is likely that such a rigid conformation of the ligand-bound form is important for the downregulation of histidine kinase activity. Furthermore, a comparison of the NMR data between the wild type and R214K and R214Q mutants suggests that a strong electrostatic interaction between residue 214 and the iron-bound ligand is not necessarily required for the single convergent structure and eventually for the downregulation of FixL.

Insights into heme-based O2 sensing from structure-function relationships in the FixL proteins

FixL proteins are bacterial heme-containing signal transduction proteins responsible for sensing the O(2) concentration in the organism's environment. In Sinorhizobium meliloti FixL is a protein histidine kinase that, together with its response regulator FixJ, constitute an oxygen-sensitive switch for regulation of the organism's nitrogen fixation and microaerobic respiration genes. The O(2) sensitivity of the switch is such that it transitions during the process of symbiosis in alfalfa roots. Bradyrhizobium japonicum FixL similarly regulates microaerobic and anaerobic respiration genes during symbiosis in soybean roots. FixLs responds to low oxygen concentrations with increased autophosphorylation activity of their kinase domains. The phosphorylated FixL provides a phosphoryl group to FixJ within a FixLJ complex. The phosphorylated FixJs are transcriptionally active toward their target genes. The FixL kinase domain is inhibited when the heme in FixL is oxygenated. Kinetic and thermodynamic studies of ligand binding to both ferrous and ferric FixLs have shown a generally low affinity for ligands relative to myoglobins. These relatively low ligand affinities are attributable almost completely to diminished rates of ligand binding. The heme and its environment in liganded and unliganded FixLs have been characterized by UV-visible spectroscopy, resonance Raman spectroscopy, EXAFS, and X-ray crystallography. These studies have revealed that in the purified proteins, the heme is converted from a six-coordinate low spin state to a five-coordinate high spin state upon O(2) release. Comparisons of spectroscopic and structural characteristics of deoxyFixL with oxyFixL, met-FixL-CN, FixL-CO, and FixL-NO complexes indicate that distal affects in the heme pocket are, at least in part, responsible for communicating the ligation state of the heme to the kinase domain. The mechanisms by which ligand binding events are communicated from the heme to the kinase domain involves propagation and/or amplification of the ligation-coupled conformational transitions of the heme and its immediate protein environment. More recently, time-resolved experiments examining the nonequilibrium, ligand-coupled dynamics initiated by O(2), CO, and NO photolysis from the corresponding FixL complexes have begun to shed light on the landscape of the switching coordinate. Current thinking and understanding of the mechanism for signal transduction in the FixLJ systems are discussed in the context of these physical investigations.

Recombinant PAS-heme domains of oxygen sensing proteins: high level production and physical characterization

Details of a high-level recombinant production method for the heme-PAS domains of heme oxygen sensing proteins from Sinorhizobium meliloti (Sm) (formerly Rhizobium meliloti, Rm), Bradyrhizobium japonicum (Bj), and Escherichia coli (Ec) are described. Using a newly proposed, concise, and unambiguous naming system (also described here) these proteins are: SmFixLH(128-264), BjFixLH(140-270), and EcDosH(1-147). In addition, high-level production of BjFixL(140-505), the soluble full-length protein containing both heme (oxygen sensing) and kinase (catalytic) domains is described. Using an IPTG-inducible pET/BL21 expression system and a rapid, two-column purification has resulted in increased yields of 3- to 17-fold over literature values. The recombinant proteins are highly pure as judged by SDS-PAGE, MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, and a UV-visible purity index. To our knowledge, this work includes the first mass spectrometry analysis of any PAS-heme protein and provides high-resolution confirmation of each protein's identity. These production and characterization improvements make possible future spectroscopic and dynamics studies designed to elucidate the intramolecular/interdomain signal that follows heme-domain oxygen dissociation.

Regulatory role of Rhizobium etli CNPAF512 fnrN during symbiosis

The Rhizobium etli CNPAF512 fnrN gene was identified in the fixABCX rpoN(2) region. The corresponding protein contains the hallmark residues characteristic of proteins belonging to the class IB group of Fnr-related proteins. The expression of R. etli fnrN is highly induced under free-living microaerobic conditions and during symbiosis. This microaerobic and symbiotic induction of fnrN is not controlled by the sigma factor RpoN and the symbiotic regulator nifA or fixLJ, but it is due to positive autoregulation. Inoculation of Phaseolus vulgaris with an R. etli fnrN mutant strain resulted in a severe reduction in the bacteroid nitrogen fixation capacity compared to the wild-type capacity, confirming the importance of FnrN during symbiosis. The expression of the R. etli fixN, fixG, and arcA genes is strictly controlled by fnrN under free-living microaerobic conditions and in bacteroids during symbiosis with the host. However, there is an additional level of regulation of fixN and fixG under symbiotic conditions. A phylogenetic analysis of the available rhizobial FnrN and FixK proteins grouped the proteins in three different clusters.

Insights into Signal Transduction Involving PAS Domain Oxygen-Sensing Heme Proteins from the X-ray Crystal Structure ofEscherichia ColiDos Heme Domain (EcDosH)†

The X-ray crystal structure of the Escherichia coli (Ec) direct oxygen sensor heme domain (Ec DosH) has been solved to 1.8 A using Fe multiple-wavelength anomalous dispersion (MAD), and the positions of Met95 have been confirmed by selenomethionine ((Se)Met) MAD. Ec DosH is the sensing part of a larger two-domain sensing/signaling protein, in which the signaling domain has phosphodiesterase activity. The asymmetric unit of the crystal lattice contains a dimer comprised of two differently ligated heme domain monomers. Except for the heme ligands, the monomer heme domains are identical. In one monomer, the heme is ligated by molecular oxygen (O(2)), while in the other monomer, an endogenous Met95 with S --> Fe ligation replaces the exogenous O(2) ligand. In both heme domains, the proximal ligand is His77. Analysis of these structures reveals sizable ligand-dependent conformational changes in the protein chain localized in the FG turn, the G(beta)-strand, and the HI turn. These changes provide insight to the mechanism of signal propagation within the heme domain following initiation due to O(2) dissociation.

The fixM flavoprotein modulates inhibition by AICAR or 5'AMP of respiratory and nitrogen fixation gene expression in Sinorhizobium meliloti

AICAR, a purine-related metabolite, was recently shown to inhibit respiratory and nifA gene expression in Sino-rhizobium meliloti. Here, we demonstrate that AICAR has essentially no or little effect in a wild-type S. meliloti strain and inhibits respiratory and nitrogen fixation gene expression only in specific mutant backgrounds. We have analyzed in detail a mutant in which addition of AICAR inhibited fixK,fixN,fixT and nifA expression. The corresponding gene,fixM, is located just downstream of fixK1 on pSymA megaplasmid and encodes a flavoprotein oxidoreductase. 5'AMP, a structural analogue of AICAR, mimicked AICAR effect as well as the nucleoside precursors AICAriboside and adenosine. The mode of action of AICAR and 5'AMP in vivo was investigated. We demonstrate that AICAR does not affect FixK transcriptional activity and instead regulates fixK and nifA gene expression. We hypothesize that AICAR and 5'AMP may modulate, possibly indirectly, the activity of the FixLJ two-component regulatory system. The possible physiological roles of AICAR, 5'AMP, and fixM in the context of symbiosis are discussed.

Metals and the rhizobial-legume symbiosis--uptake, utilization and signalling

In this review, we consider how the nitrogen-fixing root nodule bacteria, the 'rhizobia', acquire various metals, paying particular attention to the uptake of iron. We also review the literature pertaining to the roles of molybdenum and nickel in the symbiosis with legumes. We highlight some gaps in our knowledge, for example the lack of information on how rhizobia acquire molybdenum. We examine the means whereby different metals affect rhizobial physiology and the role of metals as signals for gene regulation. We describe the ways in which genetics has shown (or not) if, and how, particular metal uptake and/or metal-mediated signalling pathways are required for the symbiotic interaction with legumes.

A glutamine-amidotransferase-like protein modulates FixT anti-kinase activity in Sinorhizobium meliloti

BACKGROUND

Nitrogen fixation gene expression in Sinorhizobium meliloti, the alfalfa symbiont, depends on a cascade of regulation that involves both positive and negative control. On top of the cascade, the two-component regulatory system FixLJ is activated under the microoxic conditions of the nodule. In addition, activity of the FixLJ system is inhibited by a specific anti-kinase protein, FixT. The physiological significance of this negative regulation by FixT was so far unknown.

RESULTS

We have isolated by random Tn5 mutagenesis a S. meliloti mutant strain that escapes repression by FixT. Complementation test and DNA analysis revealed that inactivation of an asparagine synthetase-like gene was responsible for the phenotype of the mutant. This gene, that was named asnO, encodes a protein homologous to glutamine-dependent asparagine synthetases. The asnO gene did not appear to affect asparagine biosynthesis and may instead serve a regulatory function in S. meliloti. We provide evidence that asnO is active during symbiosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Isolation of the asnO mutant argues for the existence of a physiological regulation associated with fixT and makes it unlikely that fixT serves a mere homeostatic function in S. meliloti. Our data suggest that asnO might control activity of the FixT protein, in a way that remains to be elucidated. A proposed role for asnO might be to couple nitrogen fixation gene expression in S. meliloti to the nitrogen needs of the cells.

Identification of Sinorhizobium meliloti genes regulated during symbiosis

RNA fingerprinting by arbitrarily primed PCR was used to isolate Sinorhizobium meliloti genes regulated during the symbiotic interaction with alfalfa (Medicago sativa). Sixteen partial cDNAs were isolated whose corresponding genes were differentially expressed between symbiotic and free-living conditions. Thirteen sequences corresponded to genes up-regulated during symbiosis, whereas three were instead repressed during establishment of the symbiotic interaction. Seven cDNAs corresponded to known or predicted nif and fix genes. Four presented high sequence similarity with genes not yet identified in S. meliloti, including genes encoding a component of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, a cell surface protein component, a copper transporter, and an argininosuccinate lyase. Finally, five cDNAs did not exhibit any similarity with sequences present in databases. A detailed expression analysis of the nine non-nif-fix genes provided evidence for an unexpected variety of regulatory patterns, most of which have not been described so far.

Symbiotic induction of pyruvate dehydrogenase genes from Sinorhizobium meliloti

Genes coding for components of the pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) multienzyme complex (PDHc) from Sinorhizobium meliloti, the alfalfa symbiont, have been isolated on the basis of their high expression in symbiotic bacteria. The Elp component, PDH, is encoded by two genes, pdhAalpha (1,047 bp) and pdhAbeta (1,383 bp), a situation encountered in the alpha-proteobacteria Rickettsia prowazekii and Zymomonas mobilis as well as in some gram-positive bacteria and in mitochondria. pdhAalpha and pdhAbeta precede pdhB (1,344 bp), which encodes the E2p component, dihydrolipoamide acetyltransferase, of the PDHc. No gene encoding the E3 component, lipoamide dehydrogenase, was found in the immediate vicinity of pdhA and pdhB genes. pdhAalpha, pdhAbeta and pdhB likely constitute an operon. Here, we provide evidence that pdhA expression is induced in the symbiotic stage, compared with free-living conditions. We demonstrate that symbiotic expression of pdhA genes does not depend on the fix LJ regulatory cascade that regulates nitrogen fixation and respiration gene expression in symbiotic S. meliloti cells. Induction of pdhA expression could be obtained under free-living conditions upon the addition of pyruvate to the culture medium. Induction by pyruvate and symbiotic activation of pdh gene expression take place at the same promoter.

Inhibition of the FixL sensor kinase by the FixT protein in Sinorhizobium meliloti

Nitrogen fixation in symbiotic rhizobia is subject to multiple levels of gene regulation. In Sinorhizobium meliloti, the alfalfa symbiont, the FixLJ two-component regulatory system plays a major role in inducing nitrogen fixation and respiration gene expression in response to the low ambient O(2) concentration of the nodule. Here we report on the mode of action of the FixT protein, a recently identified repressor of nitrogen fixation gene expression in S. meliloti. First, we provide evidence that FixT prevents transcription of the intermediate key regulatory genes nifA and fixK by counteracting the activity of the FixLJ two-component system under otherwise inducing microoxic conditions. Second, we demonstrate that FixT acts as an inhibitor of the sensor hemoprotein kinase FixL, preventing the production or the accumulation of its phosphorylated form. FixT is thus a new example of a regulatory protein that blocks signal transduction in two-component systems at the level of the sensor kinase.

Mechanisms for redox control of gene expression

This review discusses various mechanisms that regulatory proteins use to control gene expression in response to alterations in redox. The transcription factor SoxR contains stable [2Fe-2S] centers that promote transcription activation when oxidized. FNR contains [4Fe-4S] centers that disassemble under oxidizing conditions, which affects DNA-binding activity. FixL is a histidine sensor kinase that utilizes heme as a cofactor to bind oxygen, which affects its autophosphorylation activity. NifL is a flavoprotein that contains FAD as a redox responsive cofactor. Under oxidizing conditions, NifL binds and inactivates NifA, the transcriptional activator of the nitrogen fixation genes. OxyR is a transcription factor that responds to redox by breaking or forming disulfide bonds that affect its DNA-binding activity. The ability of the histidine sensor kinase ArcB to promote phosphorylation of the response regulator ArcA is affected by multiple factors such as anaerobic metabolites and the redox state of the membrane. The global regulator of anaerobic gene expression in alpha-purple proteobacteria, RegB, appears to directly monitor respiratory activity of cytochrome oxidase. The aerobic repressor of photopigment synthesis, CrtJ, seems to contain a redox responsive cysteine. Finally, oxygen-sensitive rhizobial NifA proteins presumably bind a metal cofactor that senses redox. The functional variability of these regulatory proteins demonstrates that prokaryotes apply many different mechanisms to sense and respond to alterations in redox.

Phosphorylation-induced dimerization of the FixJ receiver domain

The 'two-component' transcriptional activator FixJ controls nitrogen fixation in Sinorhizobium meliloti. Phosphorylation of FixJ induces its dimerization, as evidenced by gel permeation chromatography and equilibrium sedimentation analysis. Phosphorylation-induced dimerization is an intrinsic property of the isolated receiver domain FixJN. Accordingly, chemical phosphorylation of both FixJ and FixJN are second-order reactions with respect to protein concentration. However, the second-order phosphorylation constant is 44-fold higher for FixJN than for FixJ. Therefore, the C-terminal transcriptional activator domain FixJC inhibits the chemical phosphorylation of the receiver domain FixJN. Conversely, FixJN has been shown previously to inhibit FixJC activity approximately 40-fold, reflecting the interaction between FixJN and FixJC. Therefore, we propose that modulation of FixJ activity involves both its dimerization and the disruption of the interface between FixJN and FixJC, resulting in the opening of the protein structure. Alanine scanning mutagenesis of FixJN indicated that the FixJ approximately P dimerization interface involves Val-91 and Lys-95 in helix alpha4. Dimerization was required for high-affinity binding to fixK promoter DNA.

PAS domains: internal sensors of oxygen, redox potential, and light

PAS domains are newly recognized signaling domains that are widely distributed in proteins from members of the Archaea and Bacteria and from fungi, plants, insects, and vertebrates. They function as input modules in proteins that sense oxygen, redox potential, light, and some other stimuli. Specificity in sensing arises, in part, from different cofactors that may be associated with the PAS fold. Transduction of redox signals may be a common mechanistic theme in many different PAS domains. PAS proteins are always located intracellularly but may monitor the external as well as the internal environment. One way in which prokaryotic PAS proteins sense the environment is by detecting changes in the electron transport system. This serves as an early warning system for any reduction in cellular energy levels. Human PAS proteins include hypoxia-inducible factors and voltage-sensitive ion channels; other PAS proteins are integral components of circadian clocks. Although PAS domains were only recently identified, the signaling functions with which they are associated have long been recognized as fundamental properties of living cells.

Interactive regulation of Azorhizobium nifA transcription via overlapping promoters

The Azorhizobium nifA promoter (PnifA) is positively regulated by two physiological signal transduction pathways, NtrBC, which signals anabolic N status, and FixLJK, which signals prevailing O2 status. Yet, PnifA response (gene product per unit time) to these two activating signals together is more than twice that of the summed, individual signals. In the absence of NIFA, a negative PnifA autoregulator, the fully induced PnifA response is more than 10-fold greater than that of summed, individual signals. Given this synergism, these two signal transduction pathways must interactively regulate PnifA activity. PnifA carries three cis-acting elements, an anaerobox, which presumably binds FIXK, a NIFAbox, which presumably binds NIFA itself, and a sigma 54 box, which presumably binds sigma 54 initiator, a subunit of RNA polymerase. For combinatorial analysis, single, double, and triple promoter mutations were constructed in these cis-acting elements, and PnifA activities were measured in six different trans-acting background, i.e., fixK, fixJ, nifA, ntrC, rpoF, and wild type. Under all physiological conditions studied, high-level PnifA activity required both FIXK in trans and the anaerobox element in cis. Surprisingly, because PnifA was hyperactive with a mutated sigma 54box, this cis-acting element mediates both negative and positive control. Because PnifA hyperactivity also required a wild-type upstream NIFAbox element, even in the absence of NIFA, a second upstream nifA transcription start superimposed on the NIFAbox element was hypothesized. When nifA mRNA 5' start points were mapped by primer extension, both a minor upstream transcript(s) starting 45 bp distal to the anaerobox and a major downstream transcript starting 10 bp distal to the sigma 54 box were observed. In Azorhizobium, RNA polymerase sigma 54 initiator subunits are encoded by a multigene family, which includes rpoF and rpoN genes. Because rpoF mutants show an Ntr+ phenotype, whereas rpoN mutants are Ntr-, multiple sigma 54 initiators are functionally distinct. Two independent rpoF mutants both show a tight Nif- phenotype. Moreover, rpoF product sigma 54F is absolutely required for high-level PnifA activity. In summary, the Azorhizobium nifA gene carries overlapping housekeeping-type and sigma 54-type promoters which interactively respond to different signals. Effectively, the upstream, housekeeping-type promoter responds to FIXK and positively regulates the downstream, sigma 54-type promoter. The downstream, sigma 54-type promoter responds to NTRC and negatively regulates the upstream, housekeeping-type promoter. In terms of transcript yield, the upstream, housekeeping-type promoter is therefore weak, and the downstream, sigma 54-type promoter is strong.

Structural and functional analysis of the fixLJ genes of Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar phaseoli CNPAF512

The fixLJ genes of Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar phaseoli CNPAF512 were identified by DNA hybridization of a genomic library with an internal fragment of the Rhizobium meliloti fixJ gene. The nucleotide sequence was determined and the corresponding amino acid sequence was aligned with the amino acid sequences of the FixL proteins of R. meliloti, Bradyrhizobium japonicum and Azorhizobium caulinodans. While the FixJ protein and the carboxy-terminal part of the FixL protein are highly homologous to the other FixL and FixJ proteins, the homology in the central heme-binding, oxygen-sensing domain and in the amino-terminal domain of FixL is very low. The R. leguminosarum bv. phaseoli FixL protein does not contain the heme-binding motif defined for the previously described FixL proteins. R. leguminosarum bv. phaseoli fixLJ and fixJ mutants were constructed. These mutants can still fix nitrogen, albeit at a reduced level. Expression analysis of nifA-gusA and nifH-gusA fusions in the constructed mutants revealed that the R. leguminosarum bv. phaseoli fixLJ genes are involved in microaerobic nifH expression but not in nifA expression.

Hypoxia-inducible gene expression

When oxygen is lacking the cellular production of some hormones, cytokines and glycolytic enzymes can be dramatically increased by a hypoxia-induced increase in the expression of the respective genes that encode for these proteins. The most progress in understanding how the transcription of genes is increased under hypoxic conditions has been made by studying the hypoxia-inducible expression of the erythropoietin gene. Elucidating the oxygen sensitive enhancer elements of the erythropoietin gene has prompted studies on other oxygen-regulated genes. The transcription-regulating proteins that are induced with hypoxia bind to closely related regulatory DNA sequences that control the expression of the genes for erythropoietin, the vascular endothelial growth factor and a number of glycolytic enzymes. It became evident that the hypoxia-inducible enhancer may be part of a widespread oxygen-sensing mechanism acting in a wide variety of mammalian cells. Comparison with the oxygen sensor system in the bacterium Rhizobium meliloti revealed some similarities with the putative oxygen sensor in mammalian cells. This sensor is thought to respond to hypoxia by inducing the signalling cascade that results in binding of the transcription factors to their respective enhancer elements to induce transcription of the respective gene.

The oxygen sensor protein, FixL, of Rhizobium meliloti. Role of histidine residues in heme binding, phosphorylation, and signal transduction

The two-component system sensor/response regulator pair, FixL/FixJ, controls the expression of Rhizobium meliloti nitrogen fixation (nif and fix) genes in response to changes in oxygen concentration. A truncated version of FixL, FixL*, is an oxygen-binding hemoprotein kinase that phosphorylates and dephosphorylates the nif and fix gene transcriptional activator, FixJ. Phosphorylation of FixJ is required for optimal transcriptional activation, and anaerobic conditions in vitro result in a substantial increase in the level of FixJ-phosphate. In this study, site-directed mutagenesis was carried out at histidine residues in FixL*. Mutant FixL* derivatives were purified and analyzed in vitro for their heme/oxygen binding properties and phosphorylation/dephosphorylation activities. Mutation of histidine 285, the putative autophosphorylation site, to glutamine results in the loss of FixL* phosphorylation activities. However, this mutant protein retains a substantial level of FixJ-phosphate dephosphorylation activity. Mutation of histidine 194 to asparagine results in the loss of heme binding and in the failure of FixL* to regulate its phosphorylation/dephosphorylation activities in response to changes in oxygen concentration. The FixL*H194N mutant protein also exhibits an increased FixJ phosphorylation activity under aerobic conditions. This study provides further evidence for the importance of the heme binding domain of FixL* in regulating FixJ phosphorylation and dephosphorylation activities in response to oxygen.

Identification and molecular genetic characterization of a sensor kinase responsible for coordinately regulating light harvesting and reaction center gene expression in response to anaerobiosis

Our laboratory recently demonstrated that anaerobic induction of light harvesting and reaction center structural gene expression involved a trans-acting factor, RegA, which exhibits sequence similarity to the class of prokaryotic sensory transduction proteins known as response regulators (M. W. Sganga and C. E. Bauer, Cell 68:945-954, 1992). In this study, we performed a screen for additional genes involved in inducing anaerobic expression of light harvesting and reaction center structural genes. This search resulted in the isolation of four strains that were shown by complementation and marker rescue analysis to harbor mutations allelic to the originally described regA mutation and one strain with a mutation found to be linked but nonallelic to regA. Sequence analysis indicated that this additional gene, regB, codes for a polypeptide that exhibits sequence similarity to the prokaryotic family of histidine sensor kinases. Analysis of photosynthesis gene expression in regB mutants indicates that the disruption of regB results in a phenotype that is very similar to that described for regA mutants, namely, a failure to trans activate anaerobic expression of the puf, puh, and puc operons. In analogy to other prokaryotic sensory transduction systems, we propose that RegB functions as a membrane-spanning sensor kinase that controls the anaerobic phosphorylation state of RegA, which in turn controls the induction of light harvesting and reaction center structural genes.

Genetic regulation of nitrogen fixation in rhizobia

This review presents a comparison between the complex genetic regulatory networks that control nitrogen fixation in three representative rhizobial species, Rhizobium meliloti, Bradyrhizobium japonicum, and Azorhizobium caulinodans. Transcription of nitrogen fixation genes (nif and fix genes) in these bacteria is induced primarily by low-oxygen conditions. Low-oxygen sensing and transmission of this signal to the level of nif and fix gene expression involve at least five regulatory proteins, FixL, FixJ, FixK, NifA, and RpoN (sigma 54). The characteristic features of these proteins and their functions within species-specific regulatory pathways are described. Oxygen interferes with the activities of two transcriptional activators, FixJ and NifA. FixJ activity is modulated via phosphorylation-dephosphorylation by the cognate sensor hemoprotein FixL. In addition to the oxygen responsiveness of the NifA protein, synthesis of NifA is oxygen regulated at the level of transcription. This type of control includes FixLJ in R. meliloti and FixLJ-FixK in A. caulinodans or is brought about by autoregulation in B. japonicum. NifA, in concert with sigma 54 RNA polymerase, activates transcription from -24/-12-type promoters associated with nif and fix genes and additional genes that are not directly involved in nitrogen fixation. The FixK proteins constitute a subgroup of the Crp-Fnr family of bacterial regulators. Although the involvement of FixLJ and FixK in nifA regulation is remarkably different in the three rhizobial species discussed here, they constitute a regulatory cascade that uniformly controls the expression of genes (fixNOQP) encoding a distinct cytochrome oxidase complex probably required for bacterial respiration under low-oxygen conditions. In B. japonicum, the FixLJ-FixK cascade also controls genes for nitrate respiration and for one of two sigma 54 proteins.

Oxygen regulation of expression of nitrogen fixation genes in Rhizobium meliloti

The sensor kinase FixL and the response regulator FixJ induce the expression of the nitrogen fixation genes of Rhizobium meliloti in response to microaerobiosis, which is a characteristic feature of the plant root nodule interior where the bacteria fix nitrogen. The kinase activity of a purified, soluble derivative of the membrane-bound hemoprotein FixL, designated FixL*, is stimulated under low oxygen conditions, thus increasing FixJ-phosphate levels. FixJ-phosphate is a potent transcriptional activator of the nifA and fixK genes, the products of which, in turn, induce the expression of most if not all of the remaining nitrogen fixation genes. FixL* and FixL*-phosphate also dephosphorylate FixJ-phosphate, and this activity is depressed by low oxygen concentrations. In the current model, gene expression is reciprocally coordinated by the kinase and phosphatase activities of FixL according to changes in oxygen tension.

FixL of Rhizobium meliloti enhances the transcriptional activity of a mutant FixJD54N protein by phosphorylation of an alternate residue

In Rhizobium meliloti, transcription of nitrogen fixation genes is induced in oxygen-depleted conditions under the control of the two-component regulatory system FixLJ. FixJ is a transcriptional activator whose activity is dramatically enhanced by phosphorylation, whereas FixL is a hemoprotein kinase that controls the level of phosphorylated FixJ in response to oxygen availability. We have found that a mutant FixJ protein, FixJD54N, in which the presumed site of phosphorylation (aspartate 54) was changed to an asparagine, is strongly affected for phosphorylation by FixL and is not detectably phosphorylated from the low-molecular-weight phosphate donor, acetyl-phosphate. Unexpectedly, FixL strongly enhances the transcriptional activity of the FixJD54N protein both in vivo and in vitro. We present evidence that FixJD54N transcriptional activity is enhanced by phosphorylation of an alternate residue in a reaction that requires FixL and ATP and is not affected by oxygen. We also demonstrate the key role of Asp-54 of FixJ in oxygen signal transduction.

Oxygen control in Rhizobium

Rhizobia are gram-negative bacteria with two distinct habitats: the soil rhizosphere in which they have a saprophytic and, usually, aerobic life and a plant ecological niche, the legume nodule, which constitutes a microoxic environment compatible with the operation of the nitrogen reducing enzyme nitrogenase. The purpose of this review is to summarize the present knowledge of the changes induced in these bacteria when shifting to a microoxic environment. Oxygen concentration regulates the expression of two major metabolic pathways: energy conservation by respiratory chains and nitrogen fixation. After reviewing the genetic data on these metabolic pathways and their response to oxygen we will put special emphasis on the regulatory molecules which are involved in the control of gene expression. We will show that, although homologous regulatory molecules allow response to oxygen in different species, they are assembled in various combinations resulting in a variable regulatory coupling between genes for microaerobic respiration and nitrogen fixation genes. The significance of coordinated regulation of genes not essential for nitrogen fixation with nitrogen fixation genes will also be discussed.

Mutants of the two-component regulatory protein FixJ of Rhizobium meliloti that have increased activity at the nifA promoter

FixL and FixJ belong to a two-component regulatory system in Rhizobium meliloti that induces the expression of numerous nitrogen-fixation genes during symbiosis with alfalfa. FixJ is a positive activator required for transcription of the regulatory genes nifA and fixK, while FixL is an oxygen-binding hemoprotein capable of regulating the phosphorylation status of both itself and FixJ, in response to oxygen availability. In this study, we isolated four FixJ mutants that display increased activity at the nifA promoter (PnifA) in Escherichia coli. All four mutants possess amino acid changes in a domain of FixJ that is conserved in other response regulator proteins, and all exhibit increased activity at PnifA in R. meliloti that is dependent on the presence of FixL. One of the mutant proteins, while less efficient at accepting phosphate from a truncated derivative of FixL (FixL*), nevertheless has a phosphorylated form that is more stable than the phosphorylated form of wild-type (wt) FixJ and is more resistant to the phosphatase activity of FixL*. The wt FixJ-phosphate was found to have a half-life of approximately 4 h, which makes it an unusually long-lived response regulator protein. The exceptional stability of wt FixJ-phosphate and the altered phosphorylation properties observed for the mutant are discussed in relation to signal transduction in the FixLJ system.

Oxygen-regulated in vitro transcription of Rhizobium meliloti nifA and fixK genes

Oxygen concentration regulates the expression of nitrogen fixation genes in the symbiotic bacterium Rhizobium meliloti. We demonstrate that two proteins, FixL and FixJ, that belong to the two-component family of regulatory proteins are necessary and sufficient for oxygen-regulated in vitro transcription of the two key regulatory genes, nifA and fixK. We show directly that FixJ is a transcriptional activator, working in conjunction with the RNA polymerase sigma 70 holoenzyme. Addition of FixL122, a soluble form of the sensor FixL protein, to the transcription assay enhanced FixJ transcriptional activity in response to low oxygen concentration. This enhancement of FixJ activity was correlated with FixJ phosphorylation.

Sequence analysis and interposon mutagenesis of the hupT gene, which encodes a sensor protein involved in repression of hydrogenase synthesis in Rhodobacter capsulatus

The hupT gene, which represses hydrogenase gene expression in the purple photosynthetic bacterium Rhodobacter capsulatus, has been identified and sequenced. The nucleotide sequence of hupT and of the contiguous downstream open reading frame, hupU, is reported. The HupT protein of 456 amino acids (48,414 Da) has sequence similarity with the FixL, DctB, NtrB, and ArcB proteins and is predicted to be a soluble sensor kinase. Insertional inactivation of the hupT gene led to deregulation of transcriptional control, so that the hydrogenase structural operon hupSLC became overexpressed in cells grown anaerobically or aerobically. The HupT- mutants were complemented in trans by a plasmid containing an intact copy of the hupT gene. The hupU open reading frame, capable of encoding a protein of 84,879 Da, shared identity with [NiFe]hydrogenase subunits; the strongest similarity was observed with the periplasmic hydrogenase of Desulfovibrio baculatus.

Symbiotic nitrogen fixation by a nifA deletion mutant of Rhizobium meliloti: the role of an unusual ntrC allele

In the N2-fixing alfalfa symbiont Rhizobium meliloti, the three sigma 54 (NTRA)-dependent positively acting regulatory proteins NIFA, NTRC, and DCTD are required for activation of promoters involved in N2 fixation (pnifHDKE and pfixABCX), nitrogen assimilation (pglnII), and C4-dicarboxylate transport (pdctA), respectively. Here, we describe an allele of ntrC which results in the constitutive activation of the above NTRC-, NIFA-, and DCTD-regulated promoters. The expression and activation of wild-type NTRC occur in response to nitrogen availability, whereas in cells carrying the ntrC283 allele, the NTRC283 protein appears constitutively active and is constitutively expressed. The ntrC283 allele was shown to carry a single mutation resulting in the replacement of an Asp by a Tyr residue in the helix-turn-helix motif of ntrC283. Introduction of the ntrC283 allele into a nifA deletion mutant restores the N2-fixation ability to 70 to 80% of the wild-type level. Thus, the nifA gene is dispensable for symbiotic N2 fixation.