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Gujar S, Pol JG, Kumar V, Lizarralde-Guerrero M, Konda P, Kroemer G, Bell JC. Tutorial: design, production and testing of oncolytic viruses for cancer immunotherapy. Nat Protoc 2024; 19:2540-2570. [PMID: 38769145 DOI: 10.1038/s41596-024-00985-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OVs) represent a novel class of cancer immunotherapy agents that preferentially infect and kill cancer cells and promote protective antitumor immunity. Furthermore, OVs can be used in combination with established or upcoming immunotherapeutic agents, especially immune checkpoint inhibitors, to efficiently target a wide range of malignancies. The development of OV-based therapy involves three major steps before clinical evaluation: design, production and preclinical testing. OVs can be designed as natural or engineered strains and subsequently selected for their ability to kill a broad spectrum of cancer cells rather than normal, healthy cells. OV selection is further influenced by multiple factors, such as the availability of a specific viral platform, cancer cell permissivity, the need for genetic engineering to render the virus non-pathogenic and/or more effective and logistical considerations around the use of OVs within the laboratory or clinical setting. Selected OVs are then produced and tested for their anticancer potential by using syngeneic, xenograft or humanized preclinical models wherein immunocompromised and immunocompetent setups are used to elucidate their direct oncolytic ability as well as indirect immunotherapeutic potential in vivo. Finally, OVs demonstrating the desired anticancer potential progress toward translation in patients with cancer. This tutorial provides guidelines for the design, production and preclinical testing of OVs, emphasizing considerations specific to OV technology that determine their clinical utility as cancer immunotherapy agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shashi Gujar
- Department of Pathology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
- Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
- Beatrice Hunter Cancer Research Institute, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Jonathan G Pol
- INSERM, U1138, Paris, France
- Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France
- Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, UMS AMICCa, Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France
| | - Vishnupriyan Kumar
- Department of Pathology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
- Beatrice Hunter Cancer Research Institute, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Manuela Lizarralde-Guerrero
- INSERM, U1138, Paris, France
- Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France
- Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, UMS AMICCa, Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France
- Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Prathyusha Konda
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Guido Kroemer
- INSERM, U1138, Paris, France.
- Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France.
- Université Paris Cité, Paris, France.
- Sorbonne Université, Paris, France.
- Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, UMS AMICCa, Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France.
- Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France.
- Institut du Cancer Paris CARPEM, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, AP-HP, Paris, France.
| | - John C Bell
- Department of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology & Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
- Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
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2
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Ageenko A, Vasileva N, Richter V, Kuligina E. Combination of Oncolytic Virotherapy with Different Antitumor Approaches against Glioblastoma. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2042. [PMID: 38396720 PMCID: PMC10889383 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25042042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2024] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma is one of the most malignant and aggressive tumors of the central nervous system. Despite the standard therapy consisting of maximal surgical resection and chemo- and radiotherapy, the median survival of patients with this diagnosis is about 15 months. Oncolytic virus therapy is one of the promising areas for the treatment of malignant neoplasms. In this review, we have focused on emphasizing recent achievements in virotherapy, both as a monotherapy and in combination with other therapeutic schemes to improve survival rate and quality of life among patients with glioblastoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alisa Ageenko
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Akad. Lavrentiev Ave. 8, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Natalia Vasileva
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Akad. Lavrentiev Ave. 8, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
- LLC "Oncostar", R&D Department, Ingenernaya Street 23, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Vladimir Richter
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Akad. Lavrentiev Ave. 8, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Elena Kuligina
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Akad. Lavrentiev Ave. 8, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
- LLC "Oncostar", R&D Department, Ingenernaya Street 23, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
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3
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DePeaux K, Delgoffe GM. Integrating innate and adaptive immunity in oncolytic virus therapy. Trends Cancer 2024; 10:135-146. [PMID: 37880008 PMCID: PMC10922271 DOI: 10.1016/j.trecan.2023.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OVs), viruses engineered to lyse tumor cells, work hand in hand with the immune response. While for decades the field isolated lytic capability and viral spread to increase response to virotherapy, there is now a wealth of research that demonstrates the importance of immunity in the OV mechanism of action. In this review, we will cover how OVs interact with the innate immune system to fully activate the adaptive immune system and yield exceptional tumor clearances as well as look forward at combination therapies which can improve clinical responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin DePeaux
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Tumor Microenvironment Center, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Greg M Delgoffe
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Tumor Microenvironment Center, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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Dobrikov MI, Dobrikova EY, Nardone-White DT, McKay ZP, Brown MC, Gromeier M. Early enterovirus translation deficits extend viral RNA replication and elicit sustained MDA5-directed innate signaling. mBio 2023; 14:e0191523. [PMID: 37962360 PMCID: PMC10746184 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01915-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Multiple pattern recognition receptors sense vRNAs and initiate downstream innate signaling: endosomal Toll-like receptors (TLRs) 3, 7, and 8 and cytoplasmic RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs) RIG-I, and MDA5. They engage distinct signaling scaffolds: mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein (RLR), MyD88, and TLR-adaptor interacting with SLC15A4 on the lysosome (TLR7 and TLR8) and toll/IL-1R domain-containing adaptor inducing IFN (TLR3). By virtue of their unusual vRNA structure and direct host cell entry path, the innate response to EVs uniquely is orchestrated by MDA5. We reported that PVSRIPO's profound attenuation and loss of cytopathogenicity triggers MDA5-directed polar TBK1-IRF3 signaling that generates priming of polyfunctional antitumor CD8+ T-cell responses and durable antitumor surveillance in vivo. Here we unraveled EV-host relations that control suppression of host type-I IFN responses and show that PVSRIPO's deficient immediate host eIF4G cleavage generates unopposed MDA5-directed downstream signaling cascades resulting in sustained type-I IFN release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikhail I. Dobrikov
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Elena Y. Dobrikova
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Dasean T. Nardone-White
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical School, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Zachary P. McKay
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Michael C. Brown
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Matthias Gromeier
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical School, Durham, North Carolina, USA
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Yi J, Lin P, Li Q, Zhang A, Kong X. A new strategy for treating colorectal cancer: Regulating the influence of intestinal flora and oncolytic virus on interferon. Mol Ther Oncolytics 2023; 30:254-274. [PMID: 37701850 PMCID: PMC10493895 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2023.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) has the third highest incidence and the second highest mortality in the world, which seriously affects human health, while current treatments methods for CRC, including systemic therapy, preoperative radiotherapy, and surgical local excision, still have poor survival rates for patients with metastatic disease, making it critical to develop new strategies for treating CRC. In this article, we found that the gut microbiota can modulate the signaling pathways of cancer cells through direct contact with tumor cells, generate inflammatory responses and oxidative stress through interactions between the innate and adaptive immune systems, and produce diverse metabolic combinations to trigger specific immune responses and promote the initiation of systemic type I interferon (IFN-I) and anti-viral immunity. In addition, oncolytic virus-mediated immunotherapy for regulating oncolytic virus can directly lyse tumor cells, induce the immune activity of the body, interact with interferon, inhibit the anti-viral effect of IFN-I, and enhance the anti-tumor effect of IFN-II. Interferon plays an important role in the anti-tumor process. We put forward that exploring the effects of intestinal flora and oncolytic virus on interferon to treat CRC is a promising therapeutic option.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Yi
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, China
| | - Peizhe Lin
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, China
| | - Qingbo Li
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, China
| | - Ao Zhang
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, China
| | - Xianbin Kong
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 301617, China
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Yang Y, Brown MC, Zhang G, Stevenson K, Mohme M, Kornahrens R, Bigner DD, Ashley DM, López GY, Gromeier M. Polio virotherapy targets the malignant glioma myeloid infiltrate with diffuse microglia activation engulfing the CNS. Neuro Oncol 2023; 25:1631-1643. [PMID: 36864784 PMCID: PMC10479910 DOI: 10.1093/neuonc/noad052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 03/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Malignant gliomas commandeer dense inflammatory infiltrates with glioma-associated macrophages and microglia (GAMM) promoting immune suppression, evasion, and tumor progression. Like all cells in the mononuclear phagocytic system, GAMM constitutively express the poliovirus receptor, CD155. Besides myeloid cells, CD155 is widely upregulated in the neoplastic compartment of malignant gliomas. Intratumor treatment with the highly attenuated rhino:poliovirus chimera, PVSRIPO, yielded long-term survival with durable radiographic responses in patients with recurrent glioblastoma (Desjardins et al. New England Journal of Medicine, 2018). This scenario raises questions about the contributions of myeloid versus neoplastic cells to polio virotherapy of malignant gliomas. METHODS We investigated PVSRIPO immunotherapy in immunocompetent mouse brain tumor models with blinded, board-certified neuropathologist review, a range of neuropathological, immunohistochemical, and immunofluorescence analyses, and RNAseq of the tumor region. RESULTS PVSRIPO treatment caused intense engagement of the GAMM infiltrate associated with substantial, but transient tumor regression. This was accompanied by marked microglia activation and proliferation in normal brain surrounding the tumor, in the ipsilateral hemisphere and extending into the contralateral hemisphere. There was no evidence for lytic infection of malignant cells. PVSRIPO-instigated microglia activation occurred against a backdrop of sustained innate antiviral inflammation, associated with induction of the Programmed Cell Death Ligand 1 (PD-L1) immune checkpoint on GAMM. Combining PVSRIPO with PD1/PD-L1 blockade led to durable remissions. CONCLUSIONS Our work implicates GAMM as active drivers of PVSRIPO-induced antitumor inflammation and reveals profound and widespread neuroinflammatory activation of the brain-resident myeloid compartment by PVSRIPO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanfan Yang
- Department of Pathology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, NC, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Michael C Brown
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Gao Zhang
- Department of Pathology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Kevin Stevenson
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Malte Mohme
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Reb Kornahrens
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Darell D Bigner
- Department of Pathology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, NC, USA
| | - David M Ashley
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Giselle Y López
- Department of Pathology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Matthias Gromeier
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, NC, USA
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Bianconi A, Palmieri G, Aruta G, Monticelli M, Zeppa P, Tartara F, Melcarne A, Garbossa D, Cofano F. Updates in Glioblastoma Immunotherapy: An Overview of the Current Clinical and Translational Scenario. Biomedicines 2023; 11:1520. [PMID: 37371615 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11061520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 05/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and aggressive central nervous system tumor, requiring multimodal management. Due to its malignant behavior and infiltrative growth pattern, GBM is one of the most difficult tumors to treat and gross total resection is still considered to be the first crucial step. The deep understanding of GBM microenvironment and the possibility of manipulating the patient's innate and adaptive immune system to fight the neoplasm represent the base of immunotherapeutic strategies that currently express the future for the fight against GBM. Despite the immunotherapeutic approach having been successfully adopted in several solid and haematologic neoplasms, immune resistance and the immunosuppressive environment make the use of these strategies challenging in GBM treatment. We describe the most recent updates regarding new therapeutic strategies that target the immune system, immune checkpoint inhibitors, chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy, peptide and oncolytic vaccines, and the relevant mechanism of immune resistance. However, no significant results have yet been obtained in studies targeting single molecules/pathways. The future direction of GBM therapy will include a combined approach that, in contrast to the inescapable current treatment modality of maximal resection followed by chemo- and radiotherapy, may combine a multifaceted immunotherapy treatment with the dual goals of directly killing tumor cells and activating the innate and adaptive immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Bianconi
- Neurosurgery, Department of Neurosciences, University of Turin, 10126 Turin, Italy
| | | | - Gelsomina Aruta
- Neurosurgery, Department of Neurosciences, University of Turin, 10126 Turin, Italy
| | - Matteo Monticelli
- UOC Neurochirurgia, Dipartimento di Medicina Traslazionale e per la Romagna, Università degli Studi di Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Pietro Zeppa
- Neurosurgery, Department of Neurosciences, University of Turin, 10126 Turin, Italy
| | - Fulvio Tartara
- Headache Science and Neurorehabilitation Center, IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Antonio Melcarne
- Neurosurgery, Department of Neurosciences, University of Turin, 10126 Turin, Italy
| | - Diego Garbossa
- Neurosurgery, Department of Neurosciences, University of Turin, 10126 Turin, Italy
| | - Fabio Cofano
- Neurosurgery, Department of Neurosciences, University of Turin, 10126 Turin, Italy
- Humanitas Gradenigo, 10100 Turin, Italy
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DePalo DK, Zager JS. Advances in Intralesional Therapy for Locoregionally Advanced and Metastatic Melanoma: Five Years of Progress. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15051404. [PMID: 36900196 PMCID: PMC10000422 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15051404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Revised: 02/19/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Locoregionally advanced and metastatic melanoma are complex diagnoses with a variety of available treatment options. Intralesional therapy for melanoma has been under investigation for decades; however, it has advanced precipitously in recent years. In 2015, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC), the only FDA-approved intralesional therapy for advanced melanoma. There has been significant progress since that time with other oncolytic viruses, toll-like receptor agonists, cytokines, xanthene dyes, and immune checkpoint inhibitors all under investigation as intralesional agents. Further to this, there has been exploration of numerous combinations of intralesional therapies and systemic therapies as various lines of therapy. Several of these combinations have been abandoned due to their lack of efficacy or safety concerns. This manuscript presents the various types of intralesional therapies that have reached phase 2 or later clinical trials in the past 5 years, including their mechanism of action, therapeutic combinations under investigation, and published results. The intention is to provide an overview of the progress that has been made, discuss ongoing trials worth following, and share our opinions on opportunities for further advancement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle K. DePalo
- Department of Cutaneous Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Jonathan S. Zager
- Department of Cutaneous Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
- Department of Oncologic Sciences, University of South Florida Morsani College of Medicine, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-(813)-745-1085; Fax: +1-(813)-745-5725
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Jafari M, Kadkhodazadeh M, Shapourabadi MB, Goradel NH, Shokrgozar MA, Arashkia A, Abdoli S, Sharifzadeh Z. Immunovirotherapy: The role of antibody based therapeutics combination with oncolytic viruses. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1012806. [PMID: 36311790 PMCID: PMC9608759 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1012806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the fact that the new drugs and targeted therapies have been approved for cancer therapy during the past 30 years, the majority of cancer types are still remain challenging to be treated. Due to the tumor heterogeneity, immune system evasion and the complex interaction between the tumor microenvironment and immune cells, the great majority of malignancies need multimodal therapy. Unfortunately, tumors frequently develop treatment resistance, so it is important to have a variety of therapeutic choices available for the treatment of neoplastic diseases. Immunotherapy has lately shown clinical responses in malignancies with unfavorable outcomes. Oncolytic virus (OV) immunotherapy is a cancer treatment strategy that employs naturally occurring or genetically-modified viruses that multiply preferentially within cancer cells. OVs have the ability to not only induce oncolysis but also activate cells of the immune system, which in turn activates innate and adaptive anticancer responses. Despite the fact that OVs were translated into clinical trials, with T-VECs receiving FDA approval for melanoma, their use in fighting cancer faced some challenges, including off-target side effects, immune system clearance, non-specific uptake, and intratumoral spread of OVs in solid tumors. Although various strategies have been used to overcome the challenges, these strategies have not provided promising outcomes in monotherapy with OVs. In this situation, it is increasingly common to use rational combinations of immunotherapies to improve patient benefit. With the development of other aspects of cancer immunotherapy strategies, combinational therapy has been proposed to improve the anti-tumor activities of OVs. In this regard, OVs were combined with other biotherapeutic platforms, including various forms of antibodies, nanobodies, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells, and dendritic cells, to reduce the side effects of OVs and enhance their efficacy. This article reviews the promising outcomes of OVs in cancer therapy, the challenges OVs face and solutions, and their combination with other biotherapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahdie Jafari
- Department of Immunology, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | | | | | - Nasser Hashemi Goradel
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Arash Arashkia
- Department of Molecular Virology, Pasture Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shahriyar Abdoli
- School of Advanced Medical Technologies, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
- *Correspondence: Zahra Sharifzadeh, ; Shahriyar Abdoli,
| | - Zahra Sharifzadeh
- Department of Immunology, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
- *Correspondence: Zahra Sharifzadeh, ; Shahriyar Abdoli,
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Li Q, Tan F, Wang Y, Liu X, Kong X, Meng J, Yang L, Cen S. The gamble between oncolytic virus therapy and IFN. Front Immunol 2022; 13:971674. [PMID: 36090998 PMCID: PMC9453641 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.971674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Various studies are being conducted on oncolytic virotherapy which one of the mechanisms is mediating interferon (IFN) production by it exerts antitumor effects. The antiviral effect of IFN itself has a negative impact on the inhibition of oncolytic virus or tumor eradication. Therefore, it is very critical to understand the mechanism of IFN regulation by oncolytic viruses, and to define its mechanism is of great significance for improving the antitumor effect of oncolytic viruses. This review focuses on the regulatory mechanisms of IFNs by various oncolytic viruses and their combination therapies. In addition, the exerting and the producing pathways of IFNs are briefly summarized, and some current issues are put forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingbo Li
- College of Traditional Chinese medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Fengxian Tan
- Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- School of Integrative Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Yuanyuan Wang
- Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- School of Integrative Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiaohui Liu
- School of Integrative Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Xianbin Kong
- College of Traditional Chinese medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- *Correspondence: Xianbin Kong, ; Jingyan Meng, ; Long Yang, ; Shan Cen,
| | - Jingyan Meng
- College of Traditional Chinese medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- *Correspondence: Xianbin Kong, ; Jingyan Meng, ; Long Yang, ; Shan Cen,
| | - Long Yang
- Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- School of Integrative Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- *Correspondence: Xianbin Kong, ; Jingyan Meng, ; Long Yang, ; Shan Cen,
| | - Shan Cen
- Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Science, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Xianbin Kong, ; Jingyan Meng, ; Long Yang, ; Shan Cen,
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11
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Li J, Zhang Y, Qu Z, Ding R, Yin X. ABCD3 is a prognostic biomarker for glioma and associated with immune infiltration: A study based on oncolysis of gliomas. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:956801. [PMID: 35959373 PMCID: PMC9358688 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.956801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Gliomas are the most lethal primary brain tumors and are still a major therapeutic challenge. Oncolytic virus therapy is a novel and effective means for glioma. However, little is known about gene expression changes during this process and their biological functions on glioma clinical characteristics and immunity. Methods The RNA-seq data after oncolytic virus EV-A71 infection on glioma cells were analyzed to screen significantly downregulated genes. Once ABCD3 was selected, The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), Chinese Glioma Genome Atlas (CGGA), Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx), Clinical Proteomic Tumor Analysis Consortium (CPTAC), and Human Protein Atlas (HPA) data were used to analyze the relationship between ABCD3 expression and clinical characteristics in glioma. We also evaluated the influence of ABCD3 on the survival of glioma patients. CIBERSORT and Tumor Immune Estimation Resource (TIMER) were also used to investigate the correlation between ABCD3 and cancer immune infiltrates. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was performed to functionally annotate the potential functions or signaling pathways related to ABCD3 expression. Results ABCD3 was among the top 5 downregulated genes in glioma cells after oncolytic virus EV-A71 infection and was significantly enriched in several GO categories. Both the mRNA and protein expression levels of ABCD3 were upregulated in glioma samples and associated with the prognosis and grades of glioma patients. The Kaplan–Meier (K-M) curve analysis revealed that patients with high ABCD3 expression had shorter disease-specific survival (DSS) and overall survival (OS) than those with low ABCD3 expression. Moreover, ABCD3 expression could affect the immune infiltration levels and diverse immune marker sets in glioma. A positive correlation was found between ABCD3 and macrophages and active dendritic cells in the microenvironment of both the GBM and LGG. Gene sets including the plk1 pathway, tyrobp causal network, ir-damage and cellular response, and interleukin-10 signaling showed significant differential enrichment in the high ABCD3 expression phenotype. Conclusion Our results suggested that ABCD3 could be a potential biomarker for glioma prognosis and immunotherapy response and also further enriched the theoretical and molecular mechanisms of oncolytic virus treatment for malignant gliomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinchuan Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Zhizhao Qu
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Rui Ding
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Xiaofeng Yin
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
- *Correspondence: Xiaofeng Yin, ;
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Dobrikov MI, Dobrikova EY, McKay ZP, Kastan JP, Brown MC, Gromeier M. PKR Binds Enterovirus IRESs, Displaces Host Translation Factors, and Impairs Viral Translation to Enable Innate Antiviral Signaling. mBio 2022; 13:e0085422. [PMID: 35652592 PMCID: PMC9239082 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00854-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
For RNA virus families except Picornaviridae, viral RNA sensing includes Toll-like receptors and/or RIG-I. Picornavirus RNAs, whose 5' termini are shielded by a genome-linked protein, are predominately recognized by MDA5. This has important ramifications for adaptive immunity, as MDA5-specific patterns of type-I interferon (IFN) release are optimal for CD4+T cell TH1 polarization and CD8+T cell priming. We are exploiting this principle for cancer immunotherapy with recombinant poliovirus (PV), PVSRIPO, the type 1 (Sabin) PV vaccine containing a rhinovirus type 2 internal ribosomal entry site (IRES). Here we show that PVSRIPO-elicited MDA5 signaling is preceded by early sensing of the IRES by the double-stranded (ds)RNA-activated protein kinase (PKR). PKR binding to IRES stem-loop domains 5-6 led to dimerization and autoactivation, displaced host translation initiation factors, and suppressed viral protein synthesis. Early PKR-mediated antiviral responses tempered incipient viral translation and the activity of cytopathogenic viral proteinases, setting up accentuated MDA5 innate inflammation in response to PVSRIPO infection. IMPORTANCE Among the RIG-I-like pattern recognition receptors, MDA5 stands out because it senses long dsRNA duplexes independent of their 5' features (RIG-I recognizes viral [v]RNA 5'-ppp blunt ends). Uniquely among RNA viruses, the innate defense against picornaviruses is controlled by MDA5. We show that prior to engaging MDA5, recombinant PV RNA is sensed upon PKR binding to the viral IRES at a site that overlaps with the footprint for host translation factors mediating 40S subunit recruitment. Our study demonstrates that innate antiviral type-I IFN responses orchestrated by MDA5 involve separate innate modules that recognize distinct vRNA features and interfere with viral functions at multiple levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikhail I. Dobrikov
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Elena Y. Dobrikova
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Zachary P. McKay
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jonathan P. Kastan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Michael C. Brown
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Matthias Gromeier
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, Durham, North Carolina, USA
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13
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Gospel of malignant Glioma: Oncolytic virus therapy. Gene 2022; 818:146217. [PMID: 35093451 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2022.146217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Glioma accounts for nearly 80% of all intracranial malignant tumors. It is a major challenge to society as it is causes to impaired brain function in many patients. Currently, gliomas are mainly treated with surgery, postoperative radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. However, the curative effects of these treatments are not satisfactory. Oncolytic virus (OV) is a novel treatment which works by activating the immune functions and inducing apoptosis of tumor cells. The OV propagates indefinitely in the host cell, eventually leading to the death of host cell. Subsequently, a large number of antigens and signal molecules are released which exert antitumor immunity. Several preclinical and clinical studies have shown that G207, DNX2401, Zika and other viruses have important roles in malignant tumors. For example, these viruses can reduce the growth of tumor cells without causing severe complications. However, the known OVs have not been clearly classified. Herein, we divided OVs into neurotropic and non-neurophilic OVs based on whether the OVs are naturally neurotropic or not. The therapeutic effects of each group were compared. Finally, challenges encountered in the clinical application of OVs in the treatment of malignant gliomas were summarized.
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14
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Yang R, Yu S, Xu T, Zhang J, Wu S. Emerging role of RNA sensors in tumor microenvironment and immunotherapy. J Hematol Oncol 2022; 15:43. [PMID: 35413927 PMCID: PMC9006576 DOI: 10.1186/s13045-022-01261-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
RNA sensors detect foreign and endogenous RNAs to protect the host by initiating innate and adaptive immune response. In tumor microenvironment (TME), activation of RNA sensors induces tumor-inhibitory cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses and inhibits the activity of immunosuppressive cells though stimulating type I IFN signaling pathway. These characteristics allow RNA sensors to be prospective targets in tumor immunotherapy. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the roles of RNA sensors in TME could provide new insight into the antitumor immunotherapy. Moreover, RNA sensors could be prominent triggering targets to synergize with immunotherapies. In this review, we highlight the diverse mechanisms of RNA sensors in cancer immunity and their emerging contributions in cancer immunotherapy, including monotherapy with RNA sensor agonists, as well as combination with chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immune checkpoint blockade or cancer vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Yang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Sihui Yu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Tianhan Xu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiawen Zhang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China. .,Reproductive Medicine Center, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China.
| | - Sufang Wu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China.
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15
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Robinson C, Xu MM, Nair SK, Beasley GM, Rhodin KE. Oncolytic viruses in melanoma. FRONT BIOSCI-LANDMRK 2022; 27:63. [PMID: 35227006 PMCID: PMC9888358 DOI: 10.31083/j.fbl2702063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2021] [Revised: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Malignant melanoma recurrence remains heterogeneous in presentation, ranging from locoregional disease (i.e., local recurrence, satellites, in transit disease) to distant dermal and visceral metastases. This diverse spectrum of disease requires a personalized approach to management and has resulted in the development of both local (e.g., surgery, radiation, intralesional injection) and systemic (intravenous or oral) treatment strategies. Intralesional agents such as oncolytic viruses may also evoke local immune stimulation to induce and enhance the antitumor immune response. Further, it is hypothesized that these oncolytic viruses may convert immunologically "cold" tumors to more reactive "hot" tumor microenvironments and thereby overcome anti-PD-1 therapy resistance. Currently, talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC), a modified herpes virus, is FDA-approved in this population, with many other oncolytic viruses under investigation in both preclinical and trial settings. Herein, we detail the scientific rationale, current landscape, and future directions of oncolytic viruses in melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maria M Xu
- Department of Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Smita K Nair
- Department of Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Georgia M Beasley
- Department of Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Kristen E Rhodin
- Department of Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA,Correspondence: (Kristen Rhodin)
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Blitz SE, Kappel AD, Gessler FA, Klinger NV, Arnaout O, Lu Y, Peruzzi PP, Smith TR, Chiocca EA, Friedman GK, Bernstock JD. Tumor-Associated Macrophages/Microglia in Glioblastoma Oncolytic Virotherapy: A Double-Edged Sword. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:1808. [PMID: 35163730 PMCID: PMC8836356 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2022] [Revised: 01/29/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic virotherapy is a rapidly progressing field that uses oncolytic viruses (OVs) to selectively infect malignant cells and cause an antitumor response through direct oncolysis and stimulation of the immune system. Despite demonstrated pre-clinical efficacy of OVs in many cancer types and some favorable clinical results in glioblastoma (GBM) trials, durable increases in overall survival have remained elusive. Recent evidence has emerged that tumor-associated macrophage/microglia (TAM) involvement is likely an important factor contributing to OV treatment failure. It is prudent to note that the relationship between TAMs and OV therapy failures is complex. Canonically activated TAMs (i.e., M1) drive an antitumor response while also inhibiting OV replication and spread. Meanwhile, M2 activated TAMs facilitate an immunosuppressive microenvironment thereby indirectly promoting tumor growth. In this focused review, we discuss the complicated interplay between TAMs and OV therapies in GBM. We review past studies that aimed to maximize effectiveness through immune system modulation-both immunostimulatory and immunosuppressant-and suggest future directions to maximize OV efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E. Blitz
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; (S.E.B.); (A.D.K.); (N.V.K); (O.A.); (Y.L.); (P.P.P.); (T.R.S.); (E.A.C.)
| | - Ari D. Kappel
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; (S.E.B.); (A.D.K.); (N.V.K); (O.A.); (Y.L.); (P.P.P.); (T.R.S.); (E.A.C.)
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Florian A. Gessler
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medicine Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany;
| | - Neil V. Klinger
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; (S.E.B.); (A.D.K.); (N.V.K); (O.A.); (Y.L.); (P.P.P.); (T.R.S.); (E.A.C.)
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Omar Arnaout
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; (S.E.B.); (A.D.K.); (N.V.K); (O.A.); (Y.L.); (P.P.P.); (T.R.S.); (E.A.C.)
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Yi Lu
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; (S.E.B.); (A.D.K.); (N.V.K); (O.A.); (Y.L.); (P.P.P.); (T.R.S.); (E.A.C.)
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Pier Paolo Peruzzi
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; (S.E.B.); (A.D.K.); (N.V.K); (O.A.); (Y.L.); (P.P.P.); (T.R.S.); (E.A.C.)
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Timothy R. Smith
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; (S.E.B.); (A.D.K.); (N.V.K); (O.A.); (Y.L.); (P.P.P.); (T.R.S.); (E.A.C.)
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Ennio A. Chiocca
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; (S.E.B.); (A.D.K.); (N.V.K); (O.A.); (Y.L.); (P.P.P.); (T.R.S.); (E.A.C.)
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Gregory K. Friedman
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA;
| | - Joshua D. Bernstock
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; (S.E.B.); (A.D.K.); (N.V.K); (O.A.); (Y.L.); (P.P.P.); (T.R.S.); (E.A.C.)
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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17
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Humeau J, Le Naour J, Galluzzi L, Kroemer G, Pol JG. Trial watch: intratumoral immunotherapy. Oncoimmunology 2021; 10:1984677. [PMID: 34676147 PMCID: PMC8526014 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2021.1984677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
While chemotherapy and radiotherapy remain the first-line approaches for the management of most unresectable tumors, immunotherapy has emerged in the past two decades as a game-changing treatment, notably with the clinical success of immune checkpoint inhibitors. Immunotherapies aim at (re)activating anticancer immune responses which occur in two main steps: (1) the activation and expansion of tumor-specific T cells following cross-presentation of tumor antigens by specialized myeloid cells (priming phase); and (2) the immunological clearance of malignant cells by these antitumor T lymphocytes (effector phase). Therapeutic vaccines, adjuvants, monoclonal antibodies, cytokines, immunogenic cell death-inducing agents including oncolytic viruses, anthracycline-based chemotherapy and radiotherapy, as well as adoptive cell transfer, all act at different levels of this cascade to (re)instate cancer immunosurveillance. Intratumoral delivery of these immunotherapeutics is being tested in clinical trials to promote superior antitumor immune activity in the context of limited systemic toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliette Humeau
- Equipe labellisée par la Ligue contre le cancer, INSERM U1138, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, Paris, France
- Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France
- Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer (IRIC), Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H3C 3J7, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Julie Le Naour
- Equipe labellisée par la Ligue contre le cancer, INSERM U1138, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, Paris, France
- Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France
- Faculté de Médecine, Université Paris-Saclay, Kremlin Bicêtre, France
| | - Lorenzo Galluzzi
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
- Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Caryl and Israel Englander Institute for Precision Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Dermatology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Guido Kroemer
- Equipe labellisée par la Ligue contre le cancer, INSERM U1138, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, Paris, France
- Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France
- Faculté de Médecine, Université Paris-Saclay, Kremlin Bicêtre, France
- Pôle de Biologie, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, AP-HP, Paris, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France
- Karolinska Institute, Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
- Suzhou Institute for Systems Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Suzhou, China
| | - Jonathan G. Pol
- Equipe labellisée par la Ligue contre le cancer, INSERM U1138, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, Paris, France
- Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France
- Faculté de Médecine, Université Paris-Saclay, Kremlin Bicêtre, France
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18
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Nandi SS, Gohil T, Sawant SA, Lambe UP, Ghosh S, Jana S. CD155: A Key Receptor Playing Diversified Roles. Curr Mol Med 2021; 22:594-607. [PMID: 34514998 DOI: 10.2174/1566524021666210910112906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Cluster of differentiation (CD155), formerly identified as poliovirus receptor (PVR) and later as immunoglobulin molecule involved in cell adhesion, proliferation, invasion and migration. It is a surface protein expressed mostly on normal and transformed malignant cells. The expression of the receptor varies based on the origin of tissue. The expression of the protein is determined by factors involved in sonic hedgehog pathway, Ras-MEK-ERK pathway and during stress conditions like DNA damage response. The protein uses alternate splicing mechanism, producing four isoforms - two being soluble (CD155β and CD155γ) and two being transmembrane protein (CD155α and CD155δ). Apart from being a viral receptor, researchers have identified CD155 having important roles in cancer research and cell signaling field. The receptor is recognized as biomarker for identifying cancerous tissue. The receptor interacts with molecules involved in cells defense mechanism. The immune-surveillance role of CD155 is being deciphered to understand the mechanistic approach it utilizes as onco-immunologic molecule. CD155 is a non-MHC-I ligand which helps in identifying non-self to NK cells via an inhibitory TIGIT ligand. The TIGIT-CD155 pathway is a novel MHC-I-independent education mechanism for cell tolerance and activation of NK cell. The receptor also has a role in metastasis of cancer and trans endothelial mechanism. In this review, authors discuss the virus-host interaction that occurs via single transmembrane receptor, the poliovirus infection pathway, which is being exploited as therapeutic pathway. The oncolytic virotherapy is now promising way for curing cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyam Sundar Nandi
- National Institute of Virology, (Mumbai unit), (Formerly Enterovirus Research Centre). Haffkine Institute Compound, Indian Council of Medical Research, A. D. Marg, Parel. Mumbai-12. India
| | - Trupti Gohil
- National Institute of Virology, (Mumbai unit), (Formerly Enterovirus Research Centre). Haffkine Institute Compound, Indian Council of Medical Research, A. D. Marg, Parel. Mumbai-12. India
| | - Sonali Ankush Sawant
- National Institute of Virology, (Mumbai unit), (Formerly Enterovirus Research Centre). Haffkine Institute Compound, Indian Council of Medical Research, A. D. Marg, Parel. Mumbai-12. India
| | - Upendra Pradeep Lambe
- National Institute of Virology, (Mumbai unit), (Formerly Enterovirus Research Centre). Haffkine Institute Compound, Indian Council of Medical Research, A. D. Marg, Parel. Mumbai-12. India
| | - Sudip Ghosh
- Molecular Biology Division, ICMR-National Institute of Nutrition, Jamai-Osmania PO, Hyderabad. India
| | - Snehasis Jana
- Trivedi Science Research Laboratory Pvt Ltd., Thane-West, Maharashtra-400604. India
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19
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Li D, Wu M. Pattern recognition receptors in health and diseases. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2021; 6:291. [PMID: 34344870 PMCID: PMC8333067 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-021-00687-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 608] [Impact Index Per Article: 202.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 05/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) are a class of receptors that can directly recognize the specific molecular structures on the surface of pathogens, apoptotic host cells, and damaged senescent cells. PRRs bridge nonspecific immunity and specific immunity. Through the recognition and binding of ligands, PRRs can produce nonspecific anti-infection, antitumor, and other immunoprotective effects. Most PRRs in the innate immune system of vertebrates can be classified into the following five types based on protein domain homology: Toll-like receptors (TLRs), nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptors (NLRs), retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I)-like receptors (RLRs), C-type lectin receptors (CLRs), and absent in melanoma-2 (AIM2)-like receptors (ALRs). PRRs are basically composed of ligand recognition domains, intermediate domains, and effector domains. PRRs recognize and bind their respective ligands and recruit adaptor molecules with the same structure through their effector domains, initiating downstream signaling pathways to exert effects. In recent years, the increased researches on the recognition and binding of PRRs and their ligands have greatly promoted the understanding of different PRRs signaling pathways and provided ideas for the treatment of immune-related diseases and even tumors. This review describes in detail the history, the structural characteristics, ligand recognition mechanism, the signaling pathway, the related disease, new drugs in clinical trials and clinical therapy of different types of PRRs, and discusses the significance of the research on pattern recognition mechanism for the treatment of PRR-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danyang Li
- Hunan Provincial Tumor Hospital and the Affiliated Tumor Hospital of Xiangya Medical School, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- The Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis of the Chinese Ministry of Health, The Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of the Chinese Ministry of Education, Cancer Research Institute, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Minghua Wu
- Hunan Provincial Tumor Hospital and the Affiliated Tumor Hospital of Xiangya Medical School, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
- The Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis of the Chinese Ministry of Health, The Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of the Chinese Ministry of Education, Cancer Research Institute, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
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20
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Oncolytic Viruses for Malignant Glioma: On the Verge of Success? Viruses 2021; 13:v13071294. [PMID: 34372501 PMCID: PMC8310195 DOI: 10.3390/v13071294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 06/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma is one of the most difficult tumor types to treat with conventional therapy options like tumor debulking and chemo- and radiotherapy. Immunotherapeutic agents like oncolytic viruses, immune checkpoint inhibitors, and chimeric antigen receptor T cells have revolutionized cancer therapy, but their success in glioblastoma remains limited and further optimization of immunotherapies is needed. Several oncolytic viruses have demonstrated the ability to infect tumors and trigger anti-tumor immune responses in malignant glioma patients. Leading the pack, oncolytic herpesvirus, first in its class, awaits an approval for treating malignant glioma from MHLW, the federal authority of Japan. Nevertheless, some major hurdles like the blood–brain barrier, the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, and tumor heterogeneity can engender suboptimal efficacy in malignant glioma. In this review, we discuss the current status of malignant glioma therapies with a focus on oncolytic viruses in clinical trials. Furthermore, we discuss the obstacles faced by oncolytic viruses in malignant glioma patients and strategies that are being used to overcome these limitations to (1) optimize delivery of oncolytic viruses beyond the blood–brain barrier; (2) trigger inflammatory immune responses in and around tumors; and (3) use multimodal therapies in combination to tackle tumor heterogeneity, with an end goal of optimizing the therapeutic outcome of oncolytic virotherapy.
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21
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Zawit M, Swami U, Awada H, Arnouk J, Milhem M, Zakharia Y. Current status of intralesional agents in treatment of malignant melanoma. ANNALS OF TRANSLATIONAL MEDICINE 2021; 9:1038. [PMID: 34277838 PMCID: PMC8267328 DOI: 10.21037/atm-21-491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Prognosis of metastatic melanoma has undergone substantial improvement with the discovery of checkpoint inhibitors. Immunotherapies and targeted therapies have improved the median overall survival (OS) of metastatic melanoma from 6 months to more than 3 years. However, still about half of the patients die due to uncontrolled disease. Therefore, multiple strategies are currently being investigated to improve outcomes. One such strategy is intralesional/intratumoral (IT) therapies which can either directly kill the tumor cells or make the tumor more immunogenic to be recognized by the immune system. Talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC), an oncolytic virus, is the first FDA approved IT therapy. This review focuses on the current status of IT agents currently under clinical trials in melanoma. Reviewed therapies include T-VEC, T-VEC with immune checkpoint inhibitors including ipilimumab and pembrolizumab or other agents, RP1, OrienX010, Canerpaturev (C-REV, HF10), CAVATAK (coxsackievirus A21, CVA21) alone or in combination with checkpoint inhibitors, oncolytic polio/rhinovirus recombinant (PVSRIPO), MAGE-A3-expressing MG1 Maraba virus, VSV-IFNbetaTYRP1, suicide gene therapy, ONCOS-102, OBP-301 (Telomelysin), Stimulation of Interferon Genes Pathway (STING agonists) including DMXAA, MIW815 (ADU-S100) and MK-1454, PV-10, toll-like receptors (TLRs) agonists including TLR-9 agonists (SD-101, CMP-001, IMO-2125 or tilsotolimod, AST-008 or cavrotolimod, MGN1703 or lefitolimod), CV8102, NKTR-262 plus NKTR-214, LHC165, G100, intralesional interleukin-2, Daromun (L19IL2 plus L19TNF), Hiltonol (poly-ICLC), electroporation including calcium electroporation and plasmid interleukin-12 electroporation (pIL-12 EP), IT ipilimumab, INT230-6 (cisplatin and vinblastine with an amphiphilic penetration enhancer), TTI-621 (SIRPαFc), CD-40 agonistic antibodies (ABBV-927 and APX005M), antimicrobial peptide LL37 and other miscellaneous agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Misam Zawit
- Department of Translational Hematology and Oncology Research, Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Umang Swami
- Department of Internal Medicine, Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Hassan Awada
- Department of Translational Hematology and Oncology Research, Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Joyce Arnouk
- Division of Hematology, Oncology and Blood and Marrow Transplantation and the Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Mohammed Milhem
- Division of Hematology, Oncology and Blood and Marrow Transplantation and the Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Yousef Zakharia
- Division of Hematology, Oncology and Blood and Marrow Transplantation and the Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, IA, USA
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22
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Beasley GM, Nair SK, Farrow NE, Landa K, Selim MA, Wiggs CA, Jung SH, Bigner DD, True Kelly A, Gromeier M, Salama AK. Phase I trial of intratumoral PVSRIPO in patients with unresectable, treatment-refractory melanoma. J Immunother Cancer 2021; 9:jitc-2020-002203. [PMID: 33875611 PMCID: PMC8057552 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2020-002203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND While programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) and programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) antagonists have improved the prognosis for many patients with melanoma, around 60% fail therapy. PVSRIPO is a non-neurovirulent rhinovirus:poliovirus chimera that facilitates an antitumor immune response following cell entry via the poliovirus receptor CD155, which is expressed on tumor and antigen-presenting cells. Preclinical studies show that oncolytic virus plus anti-PD-1 therapy leads to a greater antitumor response than either agent alone, warranting clinical investigation. METHODS An open-label phase I trial of intratumoral PVSRIPO in patients with unresectable melanoma (American Joint Committee on Cancer V.7 stage IIIB, IIIC, or IV) was performed. Eligible patients had disease progression on anti-PD-1 and V-raf murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog B (BRAF)/mitogen activated protein kinase kinase (MEK) inhibitors (if BRAF mutant). The primary objective was to characterize the safety and tolerability of PVSRIPO. Twelve patients in four cohorts received a total of 1, 2 or 3 injections of PVSRIPO monotherapy, with 21 days between injections. RESULTS PVSRIPO injections were well tolerated with no serious adverse events (SAEs) or dose-limiting toxicities (DLTs) reported. All adverse events (AEs) were grade (G) 1 or G2 (G1 pruritus most common at 58%); all but two PVSRIPO-treatment related AEs were localized to the injected or adjacent lesions (n=1 G1 hot flash, n=1 G1 fatigue). Four out of 12 patients (33%) achieved an objective response per immune-related response criteria (two observations, 4 weeks apart), including 4/6 (67%) who received three injections. In the four patients with in-transit disease, a pathological complete response (pCR) was observed in two (50%) patients. Following study completion, 11/12 patients (92%) reinitiated immune checkpoint inhibitor-based therapy, and 6/12 patients (50%) remained without progression at a median follow-up time of 18 months. CONCLUSION Intratumoral PVSRIPO was well tolerated. Despite the limited number of PVSRIPO treatments relative to the overall lesion burden (67% patients>5 lesions), intratumoral PVSRIPO showed promising antitumor activity, with pCR in injected as well as non-injected lesions in select patients. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER NCT03712358.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia M Beasley
- Department of Surgery, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA .,Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Smita K Nair
- Department of Surgery, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.,Department of Pathology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Norma E Farrow
- Department of Surgery, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Karenia Landa
- Department of Surgery, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | | | | | - Sin-Ho Jung
- Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.,Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Darell D Bigner
- Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.,Department of Pathology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | | | - Matthias Gromeier
- Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.,Department of Molecular Genetics and Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.,Department of Medicine, Duke Univeristy, Durham, NC, USA
| | - April Ks Salama
- Duke Cancer Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.,Department of Medicine, Duke Univeristy, Durham, NC, USA
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23
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Enterovirus 2A pro Cleavage of the YTHDF m 6A Readers Implicates YTHDF3 as a Mediator of Type I Interferon-Driven JAK/STAT Signaling. mBio 2021; 12:mBio.00116-21. [PMID: 33849973 PMCID: PMC8092205 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00116-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Enteroviruses (EV) deploy two proteases that mediate viral polyprotein cleavage and host cell manipulation. Here, we report that EV 2A proteases cleave all three members of the YTHDF protein family, cytosolic N 6-methyladenosine (m6A) "readers" that regulate target mRNA fate. YTHDF protein cleavage occurs very early during infection, before viral translation is detected or cytopathogenic effects are observed. Preemptive YTHDF protein depletion enhanced viral translation and replication but only in cells with restrained viral translation, signs of inefficient 2A protease activity, and protective innate host immune responses. This effect corresponded with repression of interferon (IFN)-stimulated gene (ISG) induction, while type I/III IFN production was not significantly altered. Moreover, YTHDF3 depletion impaired JAK/STAT signaling in cells treated with type I, but not type II, IFN. YTHDF3 depletion's stimulatory effect on viral dynamics was dampened by JAK/STAT blockade and enhanced by type I IFN pretreatment of cells. We propose that EV 2A proteases cleave YTHDF proteins to antagonize ISG induction in infected cells.IMPORTANCE It is believed that ∼7,000 messenger RNAs (mRNAs) are subject to N 6-methyladenosine modification. The biological significance of this remains mysterious. The YTHDF m6A readers are three related proteins with high affinity for m6A-modified mRNA, yet their biological functions remain obscure. We discovered that polio/enteroviruses elicit very early proteolysis of YTHDF1 to 3 in infected cells. Our research demonstrates that YTHDF3 acts as a positive regulator of antiviral JAK/STAT signaling in response to positive single-strand RNA virus infection, enabling type I interferon (IFN)-mediated gene regulatory programs to unfurl in infected cells. Our observation of viral degradation of the YTHDF proteins demonstrates that they are key response modifiers in the innate antiviral immune response.
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24
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Carpenter AB, Carpenter AM, Aiken R, Hanft S. Oncolytic virus in gliomas: a review of human clinical investigations. Ann Oncol 2021; 32:968-982. [PMID: 33771666 DOI: 10.1016/j.annonc.2021.03.197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Gliomas remain one of the more frustrating targets for oncologic therapy. Glioma resistance to conventional therapeutics is a product of their immune-privileged milieu behind the blood-brain barrier, in addition to their suppressive effect on the immune response itself. Taking the lead from the growing success of immunotherapy for systemic cancers, such as lung cancer and melanoma, immunotherapeutics has emerged as a major player in the potential treatment of gliomas, with oncolytic viruses in particular showing significant promise as evidenced by the recent Breakthrough and Fast Tract Designations for PVSRIPO and DNX2401. This review serves as a useful and updated compendium of the completed human clinical investigations for several oncolytic viruses in the treatment of gliomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- A B Carpenter
- Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, USA.
| | - A M Carpenter
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Neurological Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, USA
| | - R Aiken
- Gerald J. Glasser Brain Tumor Center, Atlantic Healthcare, Summit, USA
| | - S Hanft
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Westchester Medical Center, New York Medical College, Valhalla, USA
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25
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Martikainen M, Ramachandran M, Lugano R, Ma J, Martikainen MM, Dimberg A, Yu D, Merits A, Essand M. IFN-I-tolerant oncolytic Semliki Forest virus in combination with anti-PD1 enhances T cell response against mouse glioma. MOLECULAR THERAPY-ONCOLYTICS 2021; 21:37-46. [PMID: 33869741 PMCID: PMC8042242 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2021.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2020] [Accepted: 03/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Oncolytic virotherapy holds promise of effective immunotherapy against otherwise nonresponsive cancers such as glioblastoma. Our previous findings have shown that although oncolytic Semliki Forest virus (SFV) is effective against various mouse glioblastoma models, its therapeutic potency is hampered by type I interferon (IFN-I)-mediated antiviral signaling. In this study, we constructed a novel IFN-I-resistant SFV construct, SFV-AM6, and evaluated its therapeutic potency in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo in the IFN-I competent mouse GL261 glioma model. In vitro analysis shows that SFV-AM6 causes immunogenic apoptosis in GL261 cells despite high IFN-I signaling. MicroRNA-124 de-targeted SFV-AM6-124T selectively replicates in glioma cells, and it can infect orthotopic GL261 gliomas when administered intraperitoneally. The combination of SFV-AM6-124T and anti-programmed death 1 (PD1) immunotherapy resulted in increased immune cell infiltration in GL261 gliomas, including an increased tumor-reactive CD8+ fraction. Our results show that SFV-AM6-124T can overcome hurdles of innate anti-viral signaling. Combination therapy with SFV-AM6-124T and anti-PD1 promotes the inflammatory response and improves the immune microenvironment in the GL261 glioma model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miika Martikainen
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Corresponding author: Miika Martikainen, Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, 75185 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Mohanraj Ramachandran
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Roberta Lugano
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jing Ma
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Anna Dimberg
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Di Yu
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Andres Merits
- Institute of Technology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Magnus Essand
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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26
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Clinically Explored Virus-Based Therapies for the Treatment of Recurrent High-Grade Glioma in Adults. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9020138. [PMID: 33535555 PMCID: PMC7912718 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9020138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
As new treatment modalities are being explored in neuro-oncology, viruses are emerging as a promising class of therapeutics. Virotherapy consists of the introduction of either wild-type or engineered viruses to the site of disease, where they exert an antitumor effect. These viruses can either be non-lytic, in which case they are used to deliver gene therapy, or lytic, which induces tumor cell lysis and subsequent host immunologic response. Replication-competent viruses can then go on to further infect and lyse neighboring glioma cells. This treatment paradigm is being explored extensively in both preclinical and clinical studies for a variety of indications. Virus-based therapies are advantageous due to the natural susceptibility of glioma cells to viral infection, which improves therapeutic selectivity. Furthermore, lytic viruses expose glioma antigens to the host immune system and subsequently stimulate an immune response that specifically targets tumor cells. This review surveys the current landscape of oncolytic virotherapy clinical trials in high-grade glioma, summarizes preclinical experiences, identifies challenges associated with this modality across multiple trials, and highlights the potential to integrate this therapeutic strategy into promising combinatory approaches.
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27
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Hazini A, Dieringer B, Pryshliak M, Knoch KP, Heimann L, Tolksdorf B, Pappritz K, El-Shafeey M, Solimena M, Beling A, Kurreck J, Klingel K, Fechner H. miR-375- and miR-1-Regulated Coxsackievirus B3 Has No Pancreas and Heart Toxicity But Strong Antitumor Efficiency in Colorectal Carcinomas. Hum Gene Ther 2021; 32:216-230. [PMID: 33481658 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2020.228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) has strong oncolytic activity in colorectal carcinoma but it also infects the pancreas and the heart. To improve the safety of the virus, here we investigated whether pancreas and cardiac toxicity can be prevented by insertion of target sites (TS), which are complementary to miR-375 and miR-1 into the viral genome. Although miR-375 and miR-1 are abundantly expressed in the pancreas and in the heart, respectively, their expression levels are low in colorectal carcinomas, which allows the carcinomas to be selectively attacked. To investigate the importance of the microRNAs, two viruses were engineered, H3N-375TS containing only miR-375TS and H3N-375/1TS containing miR-375TS and miR-1TS. In vitro, both viruses replicated in and lysed colorectal carcinoma cells, similar to a nontargeted control virus H3N-39TS, whereas they were strongly attenuated in cell lines transiently or endogenously expressing the corresponding microRNAs. In vivo, the control virus H3N-39TS induced strong infection of the pancreas and the heart, which led to fatal disease within 4 days after a single intratumoral virus injection in mice xenografted with colorectal DLD-1 cell tumors. In contrast, three intratumoral injections of H3N-375TS or H3N-375/1TS failed to induce virus-induced sickness. In the animals, both viruses were completely ablated from the pancreas and H3N-375/1TS was also ablated from the heart, whereas the cardiac titers of H3N-375TS were strongly reduced. Long-term investigations of the DLD-1 tumor model confirmed lack of virus-induced adverse effects in H3N-375TS- and H3N-375/1TS-treated mice. There was no mortality, and the pancreas and the heart were free of pathological alterations. Regarding the therapeutic efficiency, the treated animals showed high and long-lasting H3N-375TS and H3N-375/1TS persistence in the tumor and significantly slower tumor growth. These data demonstrate that miR-375- and miR-1-mediated virus detargeting from the pancreas and heart is a highly effective strategy to prevent toxicity of oncolytic CVB3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmet Hazini
- Department of Applied Biochemistry, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Babette Dieringer
- Department of Applied Biochemistry, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Markian Pryshliak
- Department of Applied Biochemistry, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Klaus-Peter Knoch
- Molecular Diabetology, University Hospital and Faculty of Medicine Carl Gustav Carus, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany.,Paul Langerhans Institute Dresden (PLID) of the Helmholtz Center Munich at the University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus and Faculty of Medicine of the TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany.,German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD e.V.), Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Lisanne Heimann
- Department of Applied Biochemistry, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Beatrice Tolksdorf
- Department of Applied Biochemistry, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Kathleen Pappritz
- Berlin Institute of Health Center for Regenerative Therapies & Berlin-Brandenburg Center for Regenerative Therapies (BCRT), Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Virchow Klinikum (CVK), Berlin, Germany.,German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Muhammad El-Shafeey
- Berlin Institute of Health Center for Regenerative Therapies & Berlin-Brandenburg Center for Regenerative Therapies (BCRT), Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Virchow Klinikum (CVK), Berlin, Germany.,German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Medical Biotechnology Research Department, Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Institute (GEBRI), City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Michele Solimena
- Molecular Diabetology, University Hospital and Faculty of Medicine Carl Gustav Carus, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany.,Paul Langerhans Institute Dresden (PLID) of the Helmholtz Center Munich at the University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus and Faculty of Medicine of the TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany.,German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD e.V.), Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Antje Beling
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health (BIH), Institute of Biochemistry, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jens Kurreck
- Department of Applied Biochemistry, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Karin Klingel
- Cardiopathology, Institute for Pathology and Neuropathology, University Hospital Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Henry Fechner
- Department of Applied Biochemistry, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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28
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Sasso E, D'Alise AM, Zambrano N, Scarselli E, Folgori A, Nicosia A. New viral vectors for infectious diseases and cancer. Semin Immunol 2020; 50:101430. [PMID: 33262065 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2020.101430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Since the discovery in 1796 by Edward Jenner of vaccinia virus as a way to prevent and finally eradicate smallpox, the concept of using a virus to fight another virus has evolved into the current approaches of viral vectored genetic vaccines. In recent years, key improvements to the vaccinia virus leading to a safer version (Modified Vaccinia Ankara, MVA) and the discovery that some viruses can be used as carriers of heterologous genes encoding for pathological antigens of other infectious agents (the concept of 'viral vectors') has spurred a new wave of clinical research potentially providing for a solution for the long sought after vaccines against major diseases such as HIV, TB, RSV and Malaria, or emerging infectious diseases including those caused by filoviruses and coronaviruses. The unique ability of some of these viral vectors to stimulate the cellular arm of the immune response and, most importantly, T lymphocytes with cell killing activity, has also reawakened the interest toward developing therapeutic vaccines against chronic infectious diseases and cancer. To this end, existing vectors such as those based on Adenoviruses have been improved in immunogenicity and efficacy. Along the same line, new vectors that exploit viruses such as Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV), Measles Virus (MV), Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV), have emerged. Furthermore, technological progress toward modifying their genome to render some of these vectors incompetent for replication has increased confidence toward their use in infant and elderly populations. Lastly, their production process being the same for every product has made viral vectored vaccines the technology of choice for rapid development of vaccines against emerging diseases and for 'personalised' cancer vaccines where there is an absolute need to reduce time to the patient from months to weeks or days. Here we review the recent developments in viral vector technologies, focusing on novel vectors based on primate derived Adenoviruses and Poxviruses, Rhabdoviruses, Paramixoviruses, Arenaviruses and Herpesviruses. We describe the rationale for, immunologic mechanisms involved in, and design of viral vectored gene vaccines under development and discuss the potential utility of these novel genetic vaccine approaches in eliciting protection against infectious diseases and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuele Sasso
- Nouscom srl, Via di Castel Romano 100, 00128 Rome, Italy; Ceinge-Biotecnologie Avanzate S.C. A.R.L., via Gaetano Salvatore 486, 80145 Naples, Italy.
| | | | - Nicola Zambrano
- Ceinge-Biotecnologie Avanzate S.C. A.R.L., via Gaetano Salvatore 486, 80145 Naples, Italy; Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, University Federico II, Via Pansini 5, 80131 Naples, Italy.
| | | | | | - Alfredo Nicosia
- Ceinge-Biotecnologie Avanzate S.C. A.R.L., via Gaetano Salvatore 486, 80145 Naples, Italy; Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, University Federico II, Via Pansini 5, 80131 Naples, Italy.
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29
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Liu P, Wang Y, Wang Y, Kong Z, Chen W, Li J, Chen W, Tong Y, Ma W, Wang Y. Effects of oncolytic viruses and viral vectors on immunity in glioblastoma. Gene Ther 2020; 29:115-126. [PMID: 33191399 DOI: 10.1038/s41434-020-00207-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is regarded as an incurable disease due to its poor prognosis and limited treatment options. Virotherapies were once utilized on cancers for their oncolytic effects. And they are being revived on GBM treatment, as accumulating evidence presents the immunogenic effects of virotherapies in remodeling immunosuppressive GBM microenvironment. In this review, we focus on the immune responses induced by oncolytic virotherapies and viral vectors in GBM. The current developments of GBM virotherapies are briefly summarized, followed by a detailed depiction of their immune response. Limitations and lessons inferred from earlier experiments and trials are discussed. Moreover, we highlight the importance of engaging the immune responses induced by virotherapies into the multidisciplinary management of GBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Penghao Liu
- Departments of Neurosurgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100730, China
| | - Yaning Wang
- Departments of Neurosurgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100730, China
| | - Yuekun Wang
- Departments of Neurosurgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100730, China
| | - Ziren Kong
- Departments of Neurosurgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100730, China
| | - Wanqi Chen
- Departments of Neurosurgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100730, China
| | - Jiatong Li
- Departments of Neurosurgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100730, China
| | - Wenlin Chen
- Departments of Neurosurgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100730, China
| | - Yuanren Tong
- Departments of Neurosurgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100730, China
| | - Wenbin Ma
- Departments of Neurosurgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100730, China.
| | - Yu Wang
- Departments of Neurosurgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100730, China.
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30
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Stylli SS. Novel Treatment Strategies for Glioblastoma. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12102883. [PMID: 33049911 PMCID: PMC7599818 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12102883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common primary central nervous system tumor in adults. It is a highly invasive disease, making it difficult to achieve a complete surgical resection, resulting in poor prognosis with a median survival of 12–15 months after diagnosis, and less than 5% of patients survive more than 5 years. Surgical, instrument technology, diagnostic and radio/chemotherapeutic strategies have slowly evolved over time, but this has not translated into significant increases in patient survival. The current standard of care for GBM patients involving surgery, radiotherapy, and concomitant chemotherapy temozolomide (known as the Stupp protocol), has only provided a modest increase of 2.5 months in median survival, since the landmark publication in 2005. There has been considerable effort in recent years to increase our knowledge of the molecular landscape of GBM through advances in technology such as next-generation sequencing, which has led to the stratification of the disease into several genetic subtypes. Current treatments are far from satisfactory, and studies investigating acquired/inherent resistance to current therapies, restricted drug delivery, inter/intra-tumoral heterogeneity, drug repurposing and a tumor immune-evasive environment have been the focus of intense research over recent years. While the clinical advancement of GBM therapeutics has seen limited progression compared to other cancers, developments in novel treatment strategies that are being investigated are displaying encouraging signs for combating this disease. This aim of this editorial is to provide a brief overview of a select number of these novel therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanley S. Stylli
- Department of Surgery, The University of Melbourne, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, VIC 3050, Australia; or
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, Parkville, VIC 3050, Australia
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31
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Mosaheb MM, Brown MC, Dobrikova EY, Dobrikov MI, Gromeier M. Harnessing virus tropism for dendritic cells for vaccine design. Curr Opin Virol 2020; 44:73-80. [PMID: 32771959 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2020.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are pivotal stimulators of T cell responses. They provide essential signals (epitope presentation, proinflammatory cytokines, co-stimulation) to T cells and prime adaptive immunity. Therefore, they are paramount to immunization strategies geared to generate T cell immunity. The inflammatory signals DCs respond to, classically occur in the context of acute virus infection. Yet, enlisting viruses for engaging DCs is hampered by their penchant for targeting DCs with sophisticated immune evasive and suppressive ploys. In this review, we discuss our work on devising vectors based on a recombinant polio:rhinovirus chimera for effectively targeting and engaging DCs. We are juxtaposing this approach with commonly used, recently studied dsDNA virus vector platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mubeen M Mosaheb
- Departments of Molecular Genetics & Microbiology and Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, MSRB1 Room 423, Box 3020 Durham, NC 27710, United States
| | - Michael C Brown
- Departments of Molecular Genetics & Microbiology and Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, MSRB1 Room 423, Box 3020 Durham, NC 27710, United States
| | - Elena Y Dobrikova
- Departments of Molecular Genetics & Microbiology and Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, MSRB1 Room 423, Box 3020 Durham, NC 27710, United States
| | - Mikhail I Dobrikov
- Departments of Molecular Genetics & Microbiology and Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, MSRB1 Room 423, Box 3020 Durham, NC 27710, United States
| | - Matthias Gromeier
- Departments of Molecular Genetics & Microbiology and Neurosurgery, Duke University Medical School, MSRB1 Room 423, Box 3020 Durham, NC 27710, United States.
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32
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Wang H, Xu T, Huang Q, Jin W, Chen J. Immunotherapy for Malignant Glioma: Current Status and Future Directions. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2020; 41:123-138. [PMID: 31973881 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2019.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 12/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Glioma is the most common intracranial primary malignancy, with limited treatment options and a poor overall survival (OS). Immunotherapy has been used successfully in various cancers, leading to the development of similar therapies that activate the patient's immune system to eliminate glioma. In this review, we introduce the diverse immunotherapeutic approaches available for treating glioma, highlighting the successes and challenges resulting from current clinical trials. Additionally, we emphasize the effect of multiple clinical factors on immunotherapy to help optimize individualized treatment regimens. Finally, we also highlight several novel concepts and technologies that could be used to design new and/or improve existing immunotherapies. Such approaches will delineate a new blueprint for glioma treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongxiang Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shanghai Institute of Neurosurgery, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200003, PR China
| | - Tao Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shanghai Institute of Neurosurgery, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200003, PR China
| | - Qilin Huang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shanghai Institute of Neurosurgery, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200003, PR China; Department of Neurosurgery, General Hospital of Central Theater Command of Chinese People's Liberation Army, Wuhan 430070, PR China
| | - Weilin Jin
- Institute of Nano Biomedicine and Engineering, Department of Instrument Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Thin Film and Microfabrication Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Electronic Information and Electronic Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, PR China; Center for Translational Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Guilin Medical University, Guilin 541004, PR China.
| | - Juxiang Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shanghai Institute of Neurosurgery, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200003, PR China.
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Zainutdinov SS, Kochneva GV, Netesov SV, Chumakov PM, Matveeva OV. Directed evolution as a tool for the selection of oncolytic RNA viruses with desired phenotypes. Oncolytic Virother 2019; 8:9-26. [PMID: 31372363 PMCID: PMC6636189 DOI: 10.2147/ov.s176523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses have some characteristics in common with cell-based life. They can evolve and adapt to environmental conditions. Directed evolution can be used by researchers to produce viral strains with desirable phenotypes. Through bioselection, improved strains of oncolytic viruses can be obtained that have better safety profiles, increased specificity for malignant cells, and more efficient spread among tumor cells. It is also possible to select strains capable of killing a broader spectrum of cancer cell variants, so as to achieve a higher frequency of therapeutic responses. This review describes and analyses virus adaptation studies performed with members of four RNA virus families that are used for viral oncolysis: reoviruses, paramyxoviruses, enteroviruses, and rhabdoviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergei S Zainutdinov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”
, Koltsovo630559, Russia
| | - Galina V Kochneva
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”
, Koltsovo630559, Russia
| | - Sergei V Netesov
- Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk630090, Russia
| | - Peter M Chumakov
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology
, Moscow119991, Russia
- Chumakov Federal Scientific Center for Research and Development of Immune-and-Biological Products
, Moscow108819, Russia
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McCarthy C, Jayawardena N, Burga LN, Bostina M. Developing Picornaviruses for Cancer Therapy. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:E685. [PMID: 31100962 PMCID: PMC6562951 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11050685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2019] [Revised: 05/02/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OVs) form a group of novel anticancer therapeutic agents which selectively infect and lyse cancer cells. Members of several viral families, including Picornaviridae, have been shown to have anticancer activity. Picornaviruses are small icosahedral non-enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses infecting a wide range of hosts. They possess several advantages for development for cancer therapy: Their genomes do not integrate into host chromosomes, do not encode oncogenes, and are easily manipulated as cDNA. This review focuses on the picornaviruses investigated for anticancer potential and the mechanisms that underpin this specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cormac McCarthy
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand.
| | - Nadishka Jayawardena
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand.
| | - Laura N Burga
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand.
| | - Mihnea Bostina
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand.
- Otago Micro and Nano Imaging, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand.
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Martikainen M, Essand M. Virus-Based Immunotherapy of Glioblastoma. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:E186. [PMID: 30764570 PMCID: PMC6407011 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11020186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common type of primary brain tumor in adults. Despite recent advances in cancer therapy, including the breakthrough of immunotherapy, the prognosis of GBM patients remains dismal. One of the new promising ways to therapeutically tackle the immunosuppressive GBM microenvironment is the use of engineered viruses that kill tumor cells via direct oncolysis and via stimulation of antitumor immune responses. In this review, we focus on recently published results of phase I/II clinical trials with different oncolytic viruses and the new interesting findings in preclinical models. From syngeneic preclinical GBM models, it seems evident that oncolytic virus-mediated destruction of GBM tissue coupled with strong adjuvant effect, provided by the robust stimulation of innate antiviral immune responses and adaptive anti-tumor T cell responses, can be harnessed as potent immunotherapy against GBM. Although clinical testing of oncolytic viruses against GBM is at an early stage, the promising results from these trials give hope for the effective treatment of GBM in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miika Martikainen
- Department of Immunology, Genetics, and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, 75185 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Magnus Essand
- Department of Immunology, Genetics, and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, 75185 Uppsala, Sweden.
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