Complete genome sequence of Celeribacter bacteriophage P12053L

Grazing on Marine Viruses and Its Biogeochemical Implications

Viruses are the most abundant biological entities in the ocean and show great diversity in terms of size, host specificity, and infection cycle. Lytic viruses induce host cell lysis to release their progeny and thereby redirect nutrients from higher to lower trophic levels. Studies continue to show that marine viruses can be ingested by nonhost organisms. However, not much is known about the role of viral particles as a nutrient source and whether they possess a nutritional value to the grazing organisms. This review seeks to assess the elemental composition and biogeochemical relevance of marine viruses, including roseophages, which are a highly abundant group of bacteriophages in the marine environment. We place a particular emphasis on the phylum Nucleocytoviricota (NCV) (formerly known as nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses [NCLDVs]), which comprises some of the largest viral particles in the marine plankton that are well in the size range of prey for marine grazers. Many NCVs contain lipid membranes in their capsid that are rich carbon and energy sources, which further increases their nutritional value. Marine viruses may thus be an important nutritional component of the marine plankton, which can be reintegrated into the classical food web by nonhost organism grazing, a process that we coin the "viral sweep." Possibilities for future research to resolve this process are highlighted and discussed in light of current technological advancements.

Genomic Characterization of Two Novel RCA Phages Reveals New Insights into the Diversity and Evolution of Marine Viruses

Viruses are the most abundant living entities in marine ecosystems, playing critical roles in altering the structure and function of microbial communities and driving ocean biogeochemistry. Phages that infect Roseobacter clade-affiliated (RCA) cluster strains are an important component of marine viral communities. Here, we characterize the genome sequences of two new RCA phages, CRP-9 and CRP-13, which infect RCA strain FZCC0023. Genomic analysis reveals that CRP-9 and CRP-13 represent a novel evolutionary lineage of marine phages. They both have a DNA replication module most similar to those in Cobavirus group phages. In contrast, their morphogenesis and packaging modules are distinct from those in cobaviruses but homologous to those in HMO-2011-type phages. The genomic architecture of CRP-9 and CRP-13 suggests a genomic recombination event between distinct phage groups. Metagenomic data sets were examined for metagenome-assembled viral genomes (MAVGs) with similar recombinant genome architectures. Fifteen CRP-9-type MAVGs were identified from marine viromes. Additionally, 158 MAVGs were identified containing HMO-2011-type morphogenesis and packaging modules with other types of DNA replication genes, providing more evidence that recombination between different phage groups is a major driver of phage evolution. Altogether, this study significantly expands the understanding of diversity and evolution of marine roseophages. Meanwhile, the analysis of these novel RCA phages and MAVGs highlights the critical role of recombination in shaping phage diversity. These phage sequences are valuable resources for inferring the evolutionary connection of distinct phage groups. IMPORTANCE Diversity and evolution of phages that infect the relatively slow-growing but dominant Roseobacter lineages are largely unknown. In this study, RCA phages CRP-9 and CRP-13 have been isolated on a Roseobacter RCA strain and shown to have a unique genomic architecture, which appears to be the result of a recombination event. CRP-9 and CRP-13 have a DNA replication module most similar to those in Cobavirus group phages and morphogenesis and packaging modules most similar to those in HMO-2011-type phages. HMO-2011-type morphogenesis and packaging modules are found in combination with distinct types of DNA replication genes, suggesting compatibility with various DNA replication modules. Altogether, this study contributes toward a better understanding of marine viral diversity and evolution.

Metaviromics coupled with phage-host identification to open the viral 'black box'

Viruses are found in almost all biomes on Earth, with bacteriophages (phages) accounting for the majority of viral particles in most ecosystems. Phages have been isolated from natural environments using the plaque assay and liquid medium-based dilution culturing. However, phage cultivation is restricted by the current limitations in the number of culturable bacterial strains. Unlike prokaryotes, which possess universally conserved 16S rRNA genes, phages lack universal marker genes for viral taxonomy, thus restricting cultureindependent analyses of viral diversity. To circumvent these limitations, shotgun viral metagenome sequencing (i.e., metaviromics) has been developed to enable the extensive sequencing of a variety of viral particles present in the environment and is now widely used. Using metaviromics, numerous studies on viral communities have been conducted in oceans, lakes, rivers, and soils, resulting in many novel phage sequences. Furthermore, auxiliary metabolic genes such as ammonic monooxygenase C and β-lactamase have been discovered in viral contigs assembled from viral metagenomes. Current attempts to identify putative bacterial hosts of viral metagenome sequences based on sequence homology have been limited due to viral sequence variations. Therefore, culture-independent approaches have been developed to predict bacterial hosts using single-cell genomics and fluorescentlabeling. This review focuses on recent viral metagenome studies conducted in natural environments, especially in aquatic ecosystems, and their contributions to phage ecology. Here, we concluded that although metaviromics is a key tool for the study of viral ecology, this approach must be supplemented with phage-host identification, which in turn requires the cultivation of phage-bacteria systems.

Diverse, Abundant, and Novel Viruses Infecting the Marine Roseobacter RCA Lineage

Many major marine bacterial lineages such as SAR11, Prochlorococcus, SAR116, and several Roseobacter lineages have members that are abundant, relatively slow-growing, and genome streamlined. The isolation of phages that infect SAR11 and SAR116 have demonstrated the dominance of these phages in the marine virosphere. However, no phages have been isolated from bacteria in the Roseobacter RCA lineage, another abundant group of marine bacteria. In this study, seven RCA phages that infect three different RCA strains were isolated and characterized. All seven RCA phages belong to the Podoviridae family and have genome sizes ranging from 39.6 to 58.1 kb. Interestingly, three RCA phages (CRP-1, CRP-2, and CRP-3) show similar genomic content and architecture as SAR116 phage HMO-2011, which represents one of the most abundant known viral groups in the ocean. The high degree of homology among CRP-1, CRP-2, CRP-3, and HMO-2011 resulted in the contribution of RCA phages to the dominance of the HMO-2011-type group. CRP-4 and CRP-5 are similar to the Cobavirus group roseophages in terms of gene content and organization. The remaining two RCA phages, CRP-6 and CRP-7, show limited genomic similarity with known phages and represent two new phage groups. Metagenomic fragment recruitment analyses reveal that these RCA phage groups are much more abundant in the ocean than most existing marine roseophage groups. The characterization of these RCA phages has greatly expanded our understanding of the genomic diversity and evolution of marine roseophages and suggests the critical need for isolating phages from the abundant but "unculturable" bacteria.IMPORTANCE The RCA lineage of the marine Roseobacter group represents one of the slow-growing but dominant components of marine microbial communities. Although dozens of roseophages have been characterized, no phages infecting RCA strains have been reported. In this study, we reported on the first RCA phage genomes and investigated their distribution pattern and relative abundance in comparison with other important marine phage groups. Two of the four RCA phage groups were found closely related to previously reported SAR116 phage HMO-2011 and Cobavirus group roseophages, respectively. The remaining two groups are novel in the genome contents. Our study also revealed that RCA phages are widely distributed and exhibit high abundance in marine viromic data sets. Altogether, our findings have greatly broadened our understanding of RCA phages and emphasize the ecological and evolutionary importance of RCA phages in the marine virosphere.

Diversities and potential biogeochemical impacts of mangrove soil viruses

BACKGROUND

Mangroves are ecologically and economically important forests of the tropics. As one of the most carbon-rich biomes, mangroves account for 11% of the total input of terrestrial carbon into oceans. Although viruses are considered to significantly influence local and global biogeochemical cycles, little information is available regarding the community structure, genetic diversity and ecological roles of viruses in mangrove ecosystems.

METHODS

Here, we utilised viral metagenomics sequencing and virome-specific bioinformatics tools to study viral communities in six mangrove soil samples collected from different mangrove habitats in Southern China.

RESULTS

Mangrove soil viruses were found to be largely uncharacterised. Phylogenetic analyses of the major viral groups demonstrated extensive diversity and previously unknown viral clades and suggested that global mangrove viral communities possibly comprise evolutionarily close genotypes. Comparative analysis of viral genotypes revealed that mangrove soil viromes are mainly affected by marine waters, with less influence coming from freshwaters. Notably, we identified abundant auxiliary carbohydrate-active enzyme (CAZyme) genes from mangrove viruses, most of which participate in biolysis of complex polysaccharides, which are abundant in mangrove soils and organism debris. Host prediction results showed that viral CAZyme genes are diverse and probably widespread in mangrove soil phages infecting diverse bacteria of different phyla.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results showed that mangrove viruses are diverse and probably directly manipulate carbon cycling by participating in biomass recycling of complex polysaccharides, providing the knowledge essential in revealing the ecological roles of viruses in mangrove ecosystems.

Cobaviruses - a new globally distributed phage group infecting Rhodobacteraceae in marine ecosystems

Bacteriophages are widely considered to influence bacterial communities, however most phages are still unknown or not studied well enough to understand their ecological roles. We have isolated two phages infecting Lentibacter sp. SH36, affiliated with the marine Roseobacter group, and retrieved similar phage genomes from publicly available metagenomics databases. Phylogenetic analysis placed the new phages within the Cobavirus group, in the here newly proposed genus Siovirus and subfamily Riovirinae of the Podoviridae. Gene composition and presence of direct terminal repeats in cultivated cobaviruses point toward a genome replication and packaging strategy similar to the T7 phage. Investigation of the genomes suggests that viral lysis of the cell proceeds via the canonical holin-endolysin pathway. Cobaviral hosts include members of the genera Lentibacter, Sulfitobacter and Celeribacter of the Roseobacter group within the family Rhodobacteraceae (Alphaproteobacteria). Screening more than 5,000 marine metagenomes, we found cobaviruses worldwide from temperate to tropical waters, in the euphotic zone, mainly in bays and estuaries, but also in the open ocean. The presence of cobaviruses in protist metagenomes as well as the phylogenetic neighborhood of cobaviruses in glutaredoxin and ribonucleotide reductase trees suggest that cobaviruses could infect bacteria associated with phototrophic or grazing protists. With this study, we expand the understanding of the phylogeny, classification, genomic organization, biogeography and ecology of this phage group infecting marine Rhodobacteraceae.

Genomic, proteomic and bioinformatic analysis of two temperate phages in Roseobacter clade bacteria isolated from the deep-sea water

Background

Marine phages are spectacularly diverse in nature. Dozens of roseophages infecting members of Roseobacter clade bacteria were isolated and characterized, exhibiting a very high degree of genetic diversity. In the present study, the induction of two temperate bacteriophages, namely, vB_ThpS-P1 and vB_PeaS-P1, was performed in Roseobacter clade bacteria isolated from the deep-sea water, Thiobacimonas profunda JLT2016 and Pelagibaca abyssi JLT2014, respectively. Two novel phages in morphological, genomic and proteomic features were presented, and their phylogeny and evolutionary relationships were explored by bioinformatic analysis.

Results

Electron microscopy showed that the morphology of the two phages were similar to that of siphoviruses. Genome sequencing indicated that the two phages were similar in size, organization, and content, thereby suggesting that these shared a common ancestor. Despite the presence of Mu-like phage head genes, the phages are more closely related to Rhodobacter phage RC1 than Mu phages in terms of gene content and sequence similarity. Based on comparative genomic and phylogenetic analysis, we propose a Mu-like head phage group to allow for the inclusion of Mu-like phages and two newly phages. The sequences of the Mu-like head phage group were widespread, occurring in each investigated metagenomes. Furthermore, the horizontal exchange of genetic material within the Mu-like head phage group might have involved a gene that was associated with phage phenotypic characteristics.

Conclusions

This study is the first report on the complete genome sequences of temperate phages that infect deep-sea roseobacters, belonging to the Mu-like head phage group. The Mu-like head phage group might represent a small but ubiquitous fraction of marine viral diversity.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-017-3886-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A Novel Roseosiphophage Isolated from the Oligotrophic South China Sea

The Roseobacter clade is abundant and widespread in marine environments and plays an important role in oceanic biogeochemical cycling. In this present study, a lytic siphophage (labeled vB_DshS-R5C) infecting the strain type of Dinoroseobacter shibae named DFL12^T, which is part of the Roseobacter clade, was isolated from the oligotrophic South China Sea. Phage R5C showed a narrow host range, short latent period and low burst size. The genome length of phage R5C was 77, 874 bp with a G+C content of 61.5%. Genomic comparisons detected no genome matches in the GenBank database and phylogenetic analysis based on DNA polymerase I revealed phylogenetic features that were distinct to other phages, suggesting the novelty of R5C. Several auxiliary metabolic genes (e.g., phoH gene, heat shock protein and queuosine biosynthesis genes) were identified in the R5C genome that may be beneficial to the host and/or offer a competitive advantage for the phage. Among siphophages infecting the Roseobacter clade (roseosiphophages), four gene transfer agent-like genes were commonly located with close proximity to structural genes, suggesting that their function may be related to the tail of siphoviruses. The isolation and characterization of R5C demonstrated the high genomic and physiological diversity of roseophages as well as improved our understanding of host-phage interactions and the ecology of the marine Roseobacter.

Characterization and Complete Genome Sequences of Three N4-Like Roseobacter Phages Isolated from the South China Sea

Three bacteriophages (RD-1410W1-01, RD-1410Ws-07, and DS-1410Ws-06) were isolated from the surface water of Sanya Bay, northern South China Sea, on two marine bacteria type strains of the Roseobacter lineage. These phages have an isometric head and a short tail, morphologically belonging to the Podoviridae family. Two of these phages can infect four of seven marine roseobacter strains tested and the other one can infect three of them, showing relatively broader host ranges compared to known N4-like roseophages. One-step growth curves showed that these phages have similar short latent periods (1-2 h) but highly variable burst sizes (27-341 pfu cell(-1)). Their complete genomes show high level of similarities to known N4-like roseophages in terms of genome size, G + C content, gene content, and arrangement. The morphological and genomic features of these phages indicate that they belong to the N4likevirus genus. Moreover, comparative genomic analysis based on 43 N4-like phages (10 roseobacter phages and 33 phages infecting other lineages of bacteria) revealed a core genome of 18 genes shared by all the 43 phages and 38 genes shared by all the ten roseophages. The 38 core genes of N4-like roseophages nearly make up 70 % of each genome in length. Phylogenetic analysis based on the concatenated core gene products showed that our phage isolates represent two new phyletic branches, suggesting the broad genetic diversity of marine N4-like roseophages remains.

Comparative analysis of two bacteriophages of Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis

Walnut blight caused by Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis (Xaj) is one of the most frequent infective diseases of walnut, resulting in serious economic losses. One potential solution to control this disease could be the application of bacteriophages. In this study, 24 phages were isolated from soil and walnut aerial tissues infected with Xaj. Two polyvalent bacteriophages, Xaj2 and Xaj24 were chosen for further characterization including their morphological, physiological and genomic analyses. Xaj2 was classified as Siphoviridae whereas Xaj24 belonged to the Podoviridae family. Both phages demonstrated lytic effect on Xaj in laboratory trials. Complete genomes of Xaj2 and Xaj24 were determined. Genomes of Xaj2 and Xaj24 consisted of 49.241 and 44.861 nucleotides encoding 80 and 53 genes, respectively. Comparative genome analyses have revealed that Xaj2 had a unique genome sequence, while Xaj24 was a phiKMV-like phage and it was most similar to the Prado phage which is virulent for Xylella fastidiosa and Xanthomonas spp. In this study, we present the first two complete Xaj phage sequences enabling an insight into the genomics of Xaj phages.

Metagenomic Analysis of Virioplankton of the Subtropical Jiulong River Estuary, China

Viruses are the most abundant biological entities in the oceans, and encompass a significant reservoir of genetic diversity. However, little is known about their biodiversity in estuary environments, which represent a highly dynamic and potentially more diverse habitat. Here, we report a metagenomic analysis of the dsDNA viral community from the Jiulong River Estuary (JRE), China, and provide a comparative analysis with other closely related environments. The results showed that the majority of JRE virome did not show any significant similarity to the database. For the major viral group (Caudovirales) detected in the sample, Podoviridae (44.88%) were the most abundant family, followed by Siphoviridae (32.98%) and Myoviridae (17.32%). The two most abundant viruses identified in the virome were phages HTVC010P and HMO-2011, which infect bacteria belonging to marine SAR11 and SAR116 clades, respectively. Two contigs larger than 20 kb, which show similar overall genome architectures to Celeribacter phage P12053L and Thalosomonas phage BA3, respectively, were generated during assembly. Comparative analysis showed that the JRE virome was more similar to marine viromes than to freshwater viromes, and shared a relative coarse-grain genetic overlap (averaging 14.14% ± 1.68%) with other coastal viromes. Our study indicated that the diversity and community structure of the virioplankton found in JRE were mainly affected by marine waters, with less influence from freshwater discharge.

Identification of structural and morphogenesis genes of Pseudoalteromonas phage φRIO-1 and placement within the evolutionary history of Podoviridae

The virion proteins of Pseudoalteromonas phage φRIO-1 were identified and quantitated by mass spectrometry and gel densitometry. Bioinformatic methods customized to deal with extreme divergence defined a φRIO-1 tail structure homology group of phages, which was further related to T7 tail and internal virion proteins (IVPs). Similarly, homologs of tubular tail components and internal virion proteins were identified in essentially all completely sequenced podoviruses other than those in the subfamily Picovirinae. The podoviruses were subdivided into several tail structure homology groups, in addition to the RIO-1 and T7 groups. Molecular phylogeny indicated that these groups all arose about the same ancient time as the φRIO-1/T7 split. Hence, the T7-like infection mechanism involving the IVPs was an ancestral property of most podoviruses. The IVPs were found to variably host both tail lysozyme domains and domains destined for the cytoplasm, including the N4 virion RNA polymerase embedded within an IVP-D homolog.

Complete genome sequence of Paracoccus marcusii phage vB_PmaS-R3 isolated from the South China Sea

Paracoccus spp. are isolated from both terrestrial and aquatic habitats, indicating their ubiquitous existence in the environment. Here we present the first phage isolated from this genus, vB_PmaS-R3, and its complete genome sequence. Paracoccus phage vB_PmaS-R3 is a siphophage isolated from the South China Sea. The genome sequence is 42,093 bp, with a G + C content of 56.36 %. Fifty-two open reading frames were predicted from the genome. The genome can mainly be divided into three regions: genes for DNA metabolism, regulatory genes and structure forming genes. Genes encoding DNA metabolism and structural proteins showed high sequence homology to corresponding genes of Burkholderia phage KL1 and Pseudomonas phage PA73. In addition, four gene transfer agent-like genes were found in the vB_PmaS-R3 genome. A putative L-alanoyl-D-glutamate peptidase was predicted as the endolysin. A MazG gene was found in the vB_PmaS-R3 genome, which indicates genomic adaption to the nutrient-limited marine environment.

Complete genome sequences of bacteriophages P12002L and P12002S, two lytic phages that infect a marine Polaribacter strain

The bacterial genus Polaribacter is distributed widely in marine environments; however, there have been no reports of phages infecting Polaribacter strains. Here, we describe the isolation and genome sequencing of two lytic siphophages, P12002L and P12002S, that infect Polaribacter sp. strain IMCC12002. The two phages and host strain were isolated from coastal seawater of Korea. Complete genome sequences of the two phages were similar to each other and about 50 kb in length, with a G + C content of 28.9 %. The two genomes showed typical characteristics of phage genomes: a modular structure and high proportion of hypothetical proteins. The genome sequences have been deposited in GenBank under accession numbers KR136259 (P12002L) and KR136260 (P12002S).

Complete genome sequence of vB_DshP-R2C, a N4-like lytic roseophage

vB_DshP-R2C, a lytic phage that infects the marine bacterium Dinoroseobacter shibae DFL12(T), one of the model organisms of the Roseobacter clade, was isolated. Here we report the overall genome architecture of R2C. Genome analysis revealed that R2C is an N4-like phage with a 74.8 kb genome that contains 85 putative gene products.

Complete genome sequence of Roseophage vB_DshP-R1, which infects Dinoroseobacter shibae DFL12

The Roseophages, a group of marine viruses that uniquely infect the Roseobacter clade of bacteria, play a significant role in marine ecosystems. Here we present a complete genomic sequence of an N4 phage ‘vB_DshP-R1’, which infects Dinoroseobacter shibae DFL12, together with its structural and genomic features. vB_DshP-R1 has an ~ 75 nm diameter icosahedral structure and a complete genome of 75,028 bp. This is the first genome sequence of a lytic phage of the genus Dinoroseobacter.

Complete genome sequence of Roseophage vB_DshP-R1, which infects Dinoroseobacter shibae DFL12

The Roseophages, a group of marine viruses that uniquely infect the Roseobacter clade of bacteria, play a significant role in marine ecosystems. Here we present a complete genomic sequence of an N4 phage ‘vB_DshP-R1’, which infects Dinoroseobacter shibae DFL12, together with its structural and genomic features. vB_DshP-R1 has an ~ 75 nm diameter icosahedral structure and a complete genome of 75,028 bp. This is the first genome sequence of a lytic phage of the genus Dinoroseobacter.

Celeribacter marinus sp. nov., isolated from coastal seawater

A Gram-staining-negative, non-motile, non-pigmented and rod-shaped bacterial strain, designated IMCC12053(T), was isolated from coastal surface seawater of the Yellow Sea, Korea. Optimal growth of strain IMCC12053(T) was observed at 30 °C, pH 7.0 and in the presence of 2 % (w/v) NaCl. 16S rRNA gene sequence comparisons showed that strain IMCC12053(T) was most closely related to Celeribacter baekdonensis L-6(T) (97.5 % similarity) and Celeribacter neptunius H 14(T) (96.0 %). Strain IMCC12053(T) formed a robust phylogenetic clade with members of the genus Celeribacter. The DNA-DNA relatedness value between IMCC12053(T) and C. baekdonensis was far lower than 70 % (35.7-42.5 %), which indicated that strain IMCC12053(T) is a novel genomic species of the genus Celeribacter. The major respiratory isoprenoid quinone was ubiquinone-10 (Q-10) and major polar lipids were phosphatidylglycerol, diphosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylcholine and aminolipids. The DNA G+C content was 61.0 mol%. On the basis of genotypic and phenotypic data collected in this study, it is proposed that strain IMCC12053(T) represents a novel species of the genus Celeribacter, for which the name Celeribacter marinus sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is IMCC12053(T) ( = KACC 17482(T) = NBRC 109702(T)).

The genome, proteome and phylogenetic analysis of Sinorhizobium meliloti phage ΦM12, the founder of a new group of T4-superfamily phages

Phage ΦM12 is an important transducing phage of the nitrogen-fixing rhizobial bacterium Sinorhizobium meliloti. Here we report the genome, phylogenetic analysis, and proteome of ΦM12, the first report of the genome and proteome of a rhizobium-infecting T4-superfamily phage. The structural genes of ΦM12 are most similar to T4-superfamily phages of cyanobacteria. ΦM12 is the first reported T4-superfamily phage to lack genes encoding class I ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) and exonuclease dexA, and to possess a class II coenzyme B12-dependent RNR. ΦM12's novel collection of genes establishes it as the founder of a new group of T4-superfamily phages, fusing features of cyanophages and phages of enteric bacteria.

Genome sequences published outside of Standards in Genomic Sciences, October - November 2012

The purpose of this table is to provide the community with a citable record of publications of ongoing genome sequencing projects that have led to a publication in the scientific literature. While our goal is to make the list complete, there is no guarantee that we may have omitted one or more publications appearing in this time frame. Readers and authors who wish to have publications added to subsequent versions of this list are invited to provide the bibliographic data for such references to the SIGS editorial office.

Genome sequences published outside of Standards in Genomic Sciences, July - October 2012

The purpose of this table is to provide the community with a citable record of publications of ongoing genome sequencing projects that have led to a publication in the scientific literature. While our goal is to make the list complete, there is no guarantee that we may have omitted one or more publications appearing in this time frame. Readers and authors who wish to have publications added to subsequent versions of this list are invited to provide the bibliographic data for such references to the SIGS editorial office.