The genomes of the animal papillomaviruses European elk papillomavirus, deer papillomavirus, and reindeer papillomavirus contain a novel transforming gene (E9) near the early polyadenylation site

Soft tissue sarcomas in 2 zoo-housed Alaskan moose

Soft tissue sarcomas (STSs) are common well-described cutaneous neoplasms in many domestic species. Few cutaneous neoplasms have been reported in cervids, other than papilloma virus–induced benign cutaneous fibromas (BCFs). Two wild-caught Alaskan moose ( Alces alces), housed at different North American zoos, were both presented with lameness and a mass. The gross appearance of each mass varied greatly; case 1 had a distinct, exophytic, ulcerated mass near the right carpal joint similar in appearance to a BCF, and case 2 had a pronounced swelling over the left hip. Based on histologic evaluation, both masses were diagnosed as STS. The clinical presentation of these masses included rapid growth and associated lameness; however, gross appearance was markedly different. Histopathology revealed characteristics typical of STS in other species, including spindle-shaped cells arranged in streaming sheets with ovoid nuclei. STS should be included as a differential diagnosis for moose with a cutaneous or subcutaneous soft tissue mass or swelling.

Rusa alfredi papillomavirus 1 - a novel deltapapillomavirus inducing endemic papillomatosis in the endangered Visayan spotted deer

We describe a novel papillomavirus - Rusa alfredi papillomavirus 1 (RalPV1) - which causes endemic fibropapillomatosis in the European conservation breeding population of the highly endangered Visayan spotted deer (Rusa alfredi). Degenerated papillomavirus-specific primers were used to amplify and sequence parts of the viral DNA. Subsequently, the complete genomic DNA was cloned and the sequence was determined. The RalPV1 genome has a length of 8029 bp, encodes the early proteins E6, E7, E1, E2 and E5, the two late proteins L1 and L2 and contains an upstream regulatory region. Highest sequence identities were observed with two deltapapillomaviruses, the Capreolus capreolus PV1 and Cervus elaphus PV1. Pairwise comparisons and phylogenetic analysis based on the ORF L1 suggested that RalPV1 is a putative new type of the papillomavirus species Deltapapillomavirus 5.

Metagenomic survey for viruses in Western Arctic caribou, Alaska, through iterative assembly of taxonomic units

Pathogen surveillance in animals does not provide a sufficient level of vigilance because it is generally confined to surveillance of pathogens with known economic impact in domestic animals and practically nonexistent in wildlife species. As most (re-)emerging viral infections originate from animal sources, it is important to obtain insight into viral pathogens present in the wildlife reservoir from a public health perspective. When monitoring living, free-ranging wildlife for viruses, sample collection can be challenging and availability of nucleic acids isolated from samples is often limited. The development of viral metagenomics platforms allows a more comprehensive inventory of viruses present in wildlife. We report a metagenomic viral survey of the Western Arctic herd of barren ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti) in Alaska, USA. The presence of mammalian viruses in eye and nose swabs of 39 free-ranging caribou was investigated by random amplification combined with a metagenomic analysis approach that applied exhaustive iterative assembly of sequencing results to define taxonomic units of each metagenome. Through homology search methods we identified the presence of several mammalian viruses, including different papillomaviruses, a novel parvovirus, polyomavirus, and a virus that potentially represents a member of a novel genus in the family Coronaviridae.

Identification and characterization of two novel viruses in ocular infections in reindeer

A thorough understanding of virus diversity in wildlife provides epidemiological baseline information about pathogens. In this study, eye swab samples were obtained from semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifertarandustarandus) in Norway during an outbreak of infectious eye disease, possibly a very early stage of infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC). Large scale molecular virus screening, based on host nucleic acid depletion, sequence-independent amplification and next-generation sequencing of partially purified viral nucleic acid, revealed the presence of a new papillomavirus in 2 out of 8 eye swab samples and a new betaherpesvirus in 3 out of 8 eye swab samples collected from animals with clinical signs and not in similar samples in 9 animals without clinical signs. Whether either virus was responsible for causing the clinical signs or in any respect was associated to the disease condition remains to be determined.

Characterisation of the first complete genome sequence of the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) papillomavirus

The complete genomic DNA of a novel roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) papillomavirus (CcPV1) was amplified and sequenced from fibropapillomatous skin lesions of a Hungarian roe deer. Viral DNA was detected by a pair of degenerate primers and the remaining genomic sequence was amplified by a long-template high-fidelity PCR and sequenced. The CcPV1 genome was 8032 bp long and contained open reading frames (ORFs) typical for Delta-papillomaviruses (E6, E7, E1, E2, E4, E5, E9, L2, and L1) and a 799 bp long untranslated regulatory region (URR). Phylogenetic analysis based on the 3861 bp long concatenated sequence of the E1-E2-L2-L1 ORFs and on separate alignments of all major ORFs using both neighbour-joining and maximum parsimony methods placed CcPV1 on a distinct branch between Ovine papillomavirus 1 and the other deer papillomaviruses within the Delta-papillomavirus genus, although pairwise nucleotide alignments of L1 ORF sequences determined highest identities with European Elk Papillomavirus (71.2%) and Reindeer Papillomavirus (70.3%).

Complete genome and phylogenetic position of bovine papillomavirus type 7

Six bovine papillomavirus (BPV) types and 16 putative BPV types have been reported previously. Here, the complete genome sequence of BAPV6, a novel putative BPV type isolated from cattle in Japan, was determined by using multiple-primed rolling-circle amplification. The genome consisted of 7412 bp (G+C content of 46 mol%) that encoded five early (E1, E2, E4, E6 and E7) and two late (L1 and L2) genes, but did not encode the E5 gene. The E6 protein contained a non-consensus CxxC(x)33CxxC and a consensus CxxC(x)29CxxC zinc-binding domain, and the E7 protein lacked the LxCxE motif. The nucleotide sequence of the L1 open reading frame (ORF) was related most closely (57–58 %) to the L1 ORF of member(s) of the genera Betapapillomavirus, Gammapapillomavirus and Pipapillomavirus. Phylogenetic analysis based on the complete L1 ORF suggests that BAPV6 should be classified in a novel genus in the family Papillomaviridae as BPV-7.

Lack of the canonical pRB-binding domain in the E7 ORF of artiodactyl papillomaviruses is associated with the development of fibropapillomas

The L-X-C-X-E pRB-binding motif of papillomavirus (PV) E7 proteins has been implicated in the immortalization and transformation of the host cell. However, sequencing of the complete genomes of bovine papillomavirus type 3 (BPV-3), bovine papillomavirus type 5 (BPV-5), equine papillomavirus (EQPV) and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) papillomavirus (RPV) supports the notion that the pRB-binding motif is not ubiquitous among E7 proteins in the PV proteome. Key among the animal groups that lack the pRB-binding domain are the artiodactyl PVs, including European elk PV (EEPV), deer PV (DPV), reindeer PV (RPV), ovine PVs types 1 and 2 (OvPV-1 and -2) and bovine PVs 1, 2 and 5 (BPV-1, -2 and -5). Whereas the presence of the pRB-binding domain is normally associated with papillomas, the artiodactyl PVs are marked by the development of fibropapillomas on infection. Previous studies emphasized the role of E5 in the pathogenic mechanism of fibropapilloma development, but correlation between the lack of an E7 pRB-binding domain and the unique pathology of the artiodactyl PVs suggests a more complicated mechanism and an early evolutionary divergence from a pRB-binding ancestor.

Avian papillomaviruses: the parrot Psittacus erithacus papillomavirus (PePV) genome has a unique organization of the early protein region and is phylogenetically related to the chaffinch papillomavirus

BACKGROUND

An avian papillomavirus genome has been cloned from a cutaneous exophytic papilloma from an African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus). The nucleotide sequence, genome organization, and phylogenetic position of the Psittacus erithacus papillomavirus (PePV) were determined. This PePV sequence represents the first complete avian papillomavirus genome defined.

RESULTS

The PePV genome (7304 basepairs) differs from other papillomaviruses, in that it has a unique organization of the early protein region lacking classical E6 and E7 open reading frames. Phylogenetic comparison of the PePV sequence with partial E1 and L1 sequences of the chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) papillomavirus (FPV) reveals that these two avian papillomaviruses form a monophyletic cluster with a common branch that originates near the unresolved center of the papillomavirus evolutionary tree.

CONCLUSIONS

The PePV genome has a unique layout of the early protein region which represents a novel prototypic genomic organization for avian papillomaviruses. The close relationship between PePV and FPV, and between their Psittaciformes and Passeriformes hosts, supports the hypothesis that papillomaviruses have co-evolved and speciated together with their host species throughout evolution.