Adenovirus type 5 E4 open reading frame 4 protein induces apoptosis in transformed cells

A comparative review of adenovirus A12 and C5 oncogenes

Oncogenic viruses contribute to 15% of global human cancers. To achieve that, virus-encoded oncoproteins deregulate cellular transcription, antagonize common cellular pathways, and thus drive cell transformation. Notably, adenoviruses were the first human viruses proven to induce cancers in diverse animal models. Over the past decades, human adenovirus (HAdV)-mediated oncogenic transformation has been pivotal in deciphering underlying molecular mechanisms. Key adenovirus oncoproteins, encoded in early regions 1 (E1) and 4 (E4), co-ordinate these processes. Among the different adenovirus species, the most extensively studied HAdV-C5 displays lower oncogenicity than HAdV-A12. A complete understanding of the different HAdV-A12 and HAdV-C5 oncoproteins in virus-mediated cell transformation, as summarized here, is relevant for adenovirus research and offers broader insights into viral transformation and oncogenesis.

Unravelling the essential elements for recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) production in animal cell-based platforms

Recombinant adeno-associated viruses (rAAVs) stand at the forefront of gene therapy applications, holding immense significance for their safe and efficient gene delivery capabilities. The constantly increasing and unmet demand for rAAVs underscores the need for a more comprehensive understanding of AAV biology and its impact on rAAV production. In this literature review, we delved into AAV biology and rAAV manufacturing bioprocesses, unravelling the functions and essentiality of proteins involved in rAAV production. We discuss the interconnections between these proteins and how they affect the choice of rAAV production platform. By addressing existing inconsistencies, literature gaps and limitations, this review aims to define a minimal set of genes that are essential for rAAV production, providing the potential to advance rAAV biomanufacturing, with a focus on minimizing the genetic load within rAAV-producing cells.

Human adenovirus oncolytic properties and the inhibitory role of E4 orf4 and E4 orf6/7 on endogenously activated NF-κB

Human adenovirus is a promising tool for cancer therapy as an oncolytic virus. To predict which region of the oncolytic adenovirus E4 gene could be deleted, we investigated the relationship between the E4 proteins and NF-κB. Here, we report that TLR2-dependent NF-κB activation in Ad5-infected cells was significantly inhibited 24 h post-infection. Among the six E4 proteins, E4 orf4 and E4 orf6/7 exhibited notable suppressive effects on NF-κB activation. However, only E4 orf4 was co-immunoprecipitated with the RelA protein, also known as p65. It appears likely that E4 orf6/7 represses NF-κB activation via E2F-dependent pathways. Our results suggest that both E4 orf4 and E4 orf6/7 are novel inhibitors of NF-κB activation. The inhibition of endogenous NF-κB activation by E4 proteins during the late phase of infection also appears to elucidate the previously reported suppression of E1A expression in the late phase of infection. These redundant suppressive effects of E4 orf4 and E4 orf6/7 on NF-κB suggest that these proteins may play a major role in the anticancer properties of oncolytic adenovirus.

Combination therapy with oncolytic viruses and immune checkpoint inhibitors in head and neck squamous cell carcinomas: an approach of complementary advantages

Squamous cell carcinomas are the most common head and neck malignancies. Significant progress has been made in standard therapeutic methods combining surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. Nevertheless, the 5-year survival rate remains at 40-50%. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are a new strategy for treating head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCCs). Still, the overall response and effective rates are poor, as HNSCCs are 'cold' tumors with an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME), limiting ICI's beneficial effects. In this case, transforming the tumor suppression microenvironment before using ICIs could be helpful. Oncolytic viruses (OVs) can transform cold tumors into hot tumors, improving the situation. Talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC), oncolytic immunotherapy authorized for advanced melanoma, also showed good safety and antitumor activity in treating head and neck cancer and pancreatic cancer. In combination with pembrolizumab, T-Vec may have more anticancer efficacy than either drug alone. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms underpinning OVs and their potential synergism with ICIs could benefit patients with HNSCC.

A Single Amino Acid Switch in the Adenoviral DNA Binding Protein Abrogates Replication Center Formation and Productive Viral Infection

Adenoviruses are very efficient high-capacity vaccine vectors and are common gene delivery systems. Despite their extensive use in preclinical models and clinical trials over the past decades, adenoviral vectors still require optimization. To achieve that, more thorough characterizations of adenoviral genes and gene products, as well as pathogen-host interactions, are indispensable. The adenoviral DNA binding protein (DBP) is a key regulatory protein involved in various cellular and viral processes. Here, we show that single amino acid exchange mutations in human adenovirus C5 (HAdV-C5) DBP strongly influence adenoviral replication by altering interaction with the cellular ubiquitination machinery. Specifically, phenotypic analyses of DBP mutants demonstrate that single amino acid substitutions can regulate interactions with the cellular USP7 deubiquitinase, impede viral DNA synthesis, and completely abolish viral late protein expression and progeny production. Importantly, cells infected with the DBP mutant UBM5 consistently lack DBP-positive replication centers (RCs), which are usually formed during the transition from the early to the late phase of infection. Our findings demonstrate that DBP regulates a key step at the onset of the late phase of infection and that this activity is unambiguously linked to the formation and integrity of viral RCs. These data provide the experimental basis for future work that targets DBP and its interference with the formation of viral RCs during productive infection. Consequently, this work will have immediate impact on DNA virus and adenovirus research in general and, potentially, also on safety optimization of existing and development of novel adenoviral vectors and anti-adenoviral compounds.

Intratumoral Canine Distemper Virus Infection Inhibits Tumor Growth by Modulation of the Tumor Microenvironment in a Murine Xenograft Model of Canine Histiocytic Sarcoma

Histiocytic sarcomas refer to highly aggressive tumors with a poor prognosis that respond poorly to conventional treatment approaches. Oncolytic viruses, which have gained significant traction as a cancer therapy in recent decades, represent a promising option for treating histiocytic sarcomas through their replication and/or by modulating the tumor microenvironment. The live attenuated canine distemper virus (CDV) vaccine strain Onderstepoort represents an attractive candidate for oncolytic viral therapy. In the present study, oncolytic virotherapy with CDV was used to investigate the impact of this virus infection on tumor cell growth through direct oncolytic effects or by virus-mediated modulation of the tumor microenvironment with special emphasis on angiogenesis, expression of selected MMPs and TIMP-1 and tumor-associated macrophages in a murine xenograft model of canine histiocytic sarcoma. Treatment of mice with xenotransplanted canine histiocytic sarcomas using CDV induced overt retardation in tumor progression accompanied by necrosis of neoplastic cells, increased numbers of intratumoral macrophages, reduced angiogenesis and modulation of the expression of MMPs and TIMP-1. The present data suggest that CDV inhibits tumor growth in a multifactorial way, including direct cell lysis and reduction of angiogenesis and modulation of MMPs and their inhibitor TIMP-1, providing further support for the concept of its role in oncolytic therapies.

Adenoviral protein E4orf4 interacts with the polarity protein Par3 to induce nuclear rupture and tumor cell death

The tumor cell–selective killing activity of the adenovirus type 2 early region 4 ORF4 (E4orf4) protein is poorly defined at the molecular level. Here, we show that the tumoricidal effect of E4orf4 is typified by changes in nuclear dynamics that depend on its interaction with the polarity protein Par3 and actomyosin contractility. Mechanistically, E4orf4 induced a high incidence of nuclear bleb formation and repetitive nuclear ruptures, which promoted nuclear efflux of E4orf4 and loss of nuclear integrity. This process was regulated by nucleocytoskeletal connections, Par3 clustering proximal to nuclear lamina folds, and retrograde movement of actin bundles that correlated with nuclear ruptures. Significantly, Par3 also regulated the incidence of spontaneous nuclear ruptures facilitated by the downmodulation of lamins. This work uncovered a novel role for Par3 in controlling the actin-dependent forces acting on the nuclear envelope to remodel nuclear shape, which might be a defining feature of tumor cells that is harnessed by E4orf4.

An Interaction with PARP-1 and Inhibition of Parylation Contribute to Attenuation of DNA Damage Signaling by the Adenovirus E4orf4 Protein

The adenovirus (Ad) E4orf4 protein was reported to contribute to inhibition of ATM- and ATR-regulated DNA damage signaling during Ad infection and following treatment with DNA-damaging drugs. Inhibition of these pathways improved Ad replication, and when expressed alone, E4orf4 sensitized transformed cells to drug-induced toxicity. However, the mechanisms utilized were not identified. Here, we show that E4orf4 associates with the DNA damage sensor poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP-1) and that the association requires PARP activity. During Ad infection, PARP is activated, but its activity is not required for recruitment of either E4orf4 or PARP-1 to virus replication centers, suggesting that their association occurs following recruitment. Inhibition of PARP-1 assists E4orf4 in reducing DNA damage signaling during infection, and E4orf4 attenuates virus- and DNA damage-induced parylation. Furthermore, E4orf4 reduces PARP-1 phosphorylation on serine residues, which likely contributes to PARP-1 inhibition as phosphorylation of this enzyme was reported to enhance its activity. PARP-1 inhibition is important to Ad infection since treatment with a PARP inhibitor enhances replication efficiency. When E4orf4 is expressed alone, it associates with poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) chains and is recruited to DNA damage sites in a PARP-1-dependent manner. This recruitment is required for inhibition of drug-induced ATR signaling by E4orf4 and for E4orf4-induced cancer cell death. Thus, the results presented here demonstrate a novel mechanism by which E4orf4 targets and inhibits DNA damage signaling through an association with PARP-1 for the benefit of the virus and impacting E4orf4-induced cancer cell death.IMPORTANCE Replication intermediates and ends of viral DNA genomes can be recognized by the cellular DNA damage response (DDR) network as DNA damage whose repair may lead to inhibition of virus replication. Therefore, many viruses evolved mechanisms to inhibit the DDR network. We have previously shown that the adenovirus (Ad) E4orf4 protein inhibits DDR signaling, but the mechanisms were not identified. Here, we describe an association of E4orf4 with the DNA damage sensor poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP-1). E4orf4 reduces phosphorylation of this enzyme and inhibits its activity. PARP-1 inhibition assists E4orf4 in reducing Ad-induced DDR signaling and improves the efficiency of virus replication. Furthermore, the ability of E4orf4, when expressed alone, to accumulate at DNA damage sites and to kill cancer cells is attenuated by chemical inhibition of PARP-1. Our results indicate that the E4orf4-PARP-1 interaction has an important role in Ad replication and in promotion of E4orf4-induced cancer-selective cell death.

Selective elimination of cancer cells by the adenovirus E4orf4 protein in a Drosophila cancer model: a new paradigm for cancer therapy

The adenovirus (Ad) E4orf4 protein contributes to efficient progression of virus infection. When expressed alone E4orf4 induces p53- and caspase-independent cell-death, which is more effective in cancer cells than in normal cells in tissue culture. Cancer selectivity of E4orf4-induced cell-death may result from interference with various regulatory pathways that cancer cells are more dependent on, including DNA damage signaling and proliferation control. E4orf4 signaling is conserved in several organisms, including yeast, Drosophila, and mammalian cells, indicating that E4orf4-induced cell-death can be investigated in these model organisms. The Drosophila genetic model system has contributed significantly to the study of cancer and to identification of novel cancer therapeutics. Here, we used the fly model to investigate the ability of E4orf4 to eliminate cancer tissues in a whole organism with minimal damage to normal tissues. We show that E4orf4 dramatically inhibited tumorigenesis and rescued survival of flies carrying a variety of tumors, including highly aggressive and metastatic tumors in the fly brain and eye discs. Moreover, E4orf4 rescued the morphology of adult eyes containing scrib^- cancer clones even when expressed at a much later stage than scrib elimination. The E4orf4 partner protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) was required for inhibition of tumorigenesis by E4orf4 in the system described here, whereas another E4orf4 partner, Src kinase, provided only minimal contribution to this process. Our results suggest that E4orf4 is an effective anticancer agent and reveal a promising potential for E4orf4-based cancer treatments.

Biphasic Functional Interaction between the Adenovirus E4orf4 Protein and DNA-PK

The adenovirus (Ad) E4orf4 protein contributes to virus-induced inhibition of the DNA damage response (DDR) by reducing ATM and ATR signaling. Consequently, E4orf4 inhibits DNA repair and sensitizes transformed cells to killing by DNA-damaging drugs. Inhibition of ATM and ATR signaling contributes to the efficiency of virus replication and may provide one explanation for the cancer selectivity of cell death induced by the expression of E4orf4 alone. In this report, we investigate a direct interaction of E4orf4 with the DDR. We show that E4orf4 physically associates with the DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK), and we demonstrate a biphasic functional interaction between these proteins, wherein DNA-PK is required for ATM and ATR inhibition by E4orf4 earlier during infection but is inhibited by E4orf4 as infection progresses. This biphasic process is accompanied by initial augmentation and a later inhibition of DNA-PK autophosphorylation as well as by colocalization of DNA-PK with early Ad replication centers and distancing of DNA-PK from late replication centers. Moreover, inhibition of DNA-PK improves Ad replication more effectively when a DNA-PK inhibitor is added later rather than earlier during infection. When expressed alone, E4orf4 is recruited to DNA damage sites in a DNA-PK-dependent manner. DNA-PK inhibition reduces the ability of E4orf4 to induce cancer cell death, likely because E4orf4 is prevented from arriving at the damage sites and from inhibiting the DDR. Our results support an important role for the E4orf4-DNA-PK interaction in Ad replication and in facilitation of E4orf4-induced cancer-selective cell death.IMPORTANCE Several DNA viruses evolved mechanisms to inhibit the cellular DNA damage response (DDR), which acts as an antiviral defense system. We present a novel mechanism by which the adenovirus (Ad) E4orf4 protein inhibits the DDR. E4orf4 interacts with the DNA damage sensor DNA-PK in a biphasic manner. Early during infection, E4orf4 requires DNA-PK activity to inhibit various branches of the DDR, whereas it later inhibits DNA-PK itself. Furthermore, although both E4orf4 and DNA-PK are recruited to virus replication centers (RCs), DNA-PK is later distanced from late-phase RCs. Delayed DNA-PK inhibition greatly contributes to Ad replication efficiency. When E4orf4 is expressed alone, it is recruited to DNA damage sites. Inhibition of DNA-PK prevents both recruitment and the previously reported ability of E4orf4 to kill cancer cells. Our results support an important role for the E4orf4-DNA-PK interaction in Ad replication and in facilitation of E4orf4-induced cancer-selective cell death.

Oncolytic Viruses and Immune Checkpoint Inhibition: The Best of Both Worlds

Cancer immunotherapy and the emergence of immune checkpoint inhibitors have markedly changed the treatment paradigm for many cancers. They function to disrupt cancer cell evasion of the immune response and activate sustained anti-tumor immunity. Oncolytic viruses have also emerged as an additional therapeutic agent for cancer treatment. These viruses are designed to target and kill tumor cells while leaving the normal cells unharmed. As part of this process, oncolytic virus infection stimulates anti-cancer immune responses that augment the efficacy of checkpoint inhibition. These viruses have the capability of transforming a “cold” tumor microenvironment with few immune effector cells into a “hot” environment with increased immune cell and cytokine infiltration. For this reason, there are multiple ongoing clinical trials that combine oncolytic virotherapy and immune checkpoint inhibitors. This review will detail the key oncolytic viruses in preclinical and clinical studies and highlight the results of their testing with checkpoint inhibitors.

The Adenovirus E4orf4 Protein Provides a Novel Mechanism for Inhibition of the DNA Damage Response

The DNA damage response (DDR) is a conglomerate of pathways designed to detect DNA damage and signal its presence to cell cycle checkpoints and to the repair machinery, allowing the cell to pause and mend the damage, or if the damage is too severe, to trigger apoptosis or senescence. Various DDR branches are regulated by kinases of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-like protein kinase family, including ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM) and ATM- and Rad3-related (ATR). Replication intermediates and linear double-stranded genomes of DNA viruses are perceived by the cell as DNA damage and activate the DDR. If allowed to operate, the DDR will stimulate ligation of viral genomes and will inhibit virus replication. To prevent this outcome, many DNA viruses evolved ways to limit the DDR. As part of its attack on the DDR, adenovirus utilizes various viral proteins to cause degradation of DDR proteins and to sequester the MRN damage sensor outside virus replication centers. Here we show that adenovirus evolved yet another novel mechanism to inhibit the DDR. The E4orf4 protein, together with its cellular partner PP2A, reduces phosphorylation of ATM and ATR substrates in virus-infected cells and in cells treated with DNA damaging drugs, and causes accumulation of damaged DNA in the drug-treated cells. ATM and ATR are not mutually required for inhibition of their signaling pathways by E4orf4. ATM and ATR deficiency as well as E4orf4 expression enhance infection efficiency. Furthermore, E4orf4, previously reported to induce cancer-specific cell death when expressed alone, sensitizes cells to killing by sub-lethal concentrations of DNA damaging drugs, likely because it inhibits DNA damage repair. These findings provide one explanation for the cancer-specificity of E4orf4-induced cell death as many cancers have DDR deficiencies leading to increased reliance on the remaining intact DDR pathways and to enhanced susceptibility to DDR inhibitors such as E4orf4. Thus DDR inhibition by E4orf4 contributes both to the efficiency of adenovirus replication and to the ability of E4orf4 to kill cancer cells.

The Human Adenovirus Type 5 E4orf4 Protein Targets Two Phosphatase Regulators of the Hippo Signaling Pathway

When expressed alone at high levels, the human adenovirus E4orf4 protein exhibits tumor cell-specific p53-independent toxicity. A major E4orf4 target is the B55 class of PP2A regulatory subunits, and we have shown recently that binding of E4orf4 inhibits PP2A(B55) phosphatase activity in a dose-dependent fashion by preventing access of substrates (M. Z. Mui et al., PLoS Pathog 9:e1003742, 2013, http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1003742). While interaction with B55 subunits is essential for toxicity, E4orf4 mutants exist that, despite binding B55 at high levels, are defective in cell killing, suggesting that other essential targets exist. In an attempt to identify additional targets, we undertook a proteomics approach to characterize E4orf4-interacting proteins. Our findings indicated that, in addition to PP2A(B55) subunits, ASPP-PP1 complex subunits were found among the major E4orf4-binding species. Both the PP2A and ASPP-PP1 phosphatases are known to positively regulate effectors of the Hippo signaling pathway, which controls the expression of cell growth/survival genes by dephosphorylating the YAP transcriptional coactivator. We find here that expression of E4orf4 results in hyperphosphorylation of YAP, suggesting that Hippo signaling is affected by E4orf4 interactions with PP2A(B55) and/or ASPP-PP1 phosphatases. Furthermore, knockdown of YAP1 expression was seen to enhance E4orf4 killing, again consistent with a link between E4orf4 toxicity and inhibition of the Hippo pathway. This effect may in fact contribute to the cancer cell specificity of E4orf4 toxicity, as many human cancer cells rely heavily on the Hippo pathway for their enhanced proliferation.

IMPORTANCE

The human adenovirus E4orf4 protein has been known for some time to induce tumor cell-specific death when expressed at high levels; thus, knowledge of its mode of action could be of importance for development of new cancer therapies. Although the B55 form of the phosphatase PP2A has long been known as an essential E4orf4 target, genetic analyses indicated that others must exist. To identify additional E4orf4 targets, we performed, for the first time, a large-scale affinity purification/mass spectrometry analysis of E4orf4 binding partners. Several additional candidates were detected, including key regulators of the Hippo signaling pathway, which enhances cell viability in many cancers, and results of preliminary studies suggested a link between inhibition of Hippo signaling and E4orf4 toxicity.

Mechanisms of cancer cell killing by the adenovirus E4orf4 protein

During adenovirus (Ad) replication the Ad E4orf4 protein regulates progression from the early to the late phase of infection. However, when E4orf4 is expressed alone outside the context of the virus it induces a non-canonical mode of programmed cell death, which feeds into known cell death pathways such as apoptosis or necrosis, depending on the cell line tested. E4orf4-induced cell death has many interesting and unique features including a higher susceptibility of cancer cells to E4orf4-induced cell killing compared with normal cells, caspase-independence, a high degree of evolutionary conservation of the signaling pathways, a link to perturbations of the cell cycle, and involvement of two distinct cell death programs, in the nucleus and in the cytoplasm. Several E4orf4-interacting proteins including its major partners, protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) and Src family kinases, contribute to induction of cell death. The various features of E4orf4-induced cell killing as well as studies to decipher the underlying mechanisms are described here. Many explanations for the cancer specificity of E4orf4-induced cell death have been proposed, but a full understanding of the reasons for the different susceptibility of cancer and normal cells to killing by E4orf4 will require a more detailed analysis of the complex E4orf4 signaling network. An improved understanding of the mechanisms involved in this unique mode of programmed cell death may aid in design of novel E4orf4-based cancer therapeutics.

Adenovirus replaces mitotic checkpoint controls

Infection with adenovirus triggers the cellular DNA damage response, elements of which include cell death and cell cycle arrest. Early adenoviral proteins, including the E1B-55K and E4orf3 proteins, inhibit signaling in response to DNA damage. A fraction of cells infected with an adenovirus mutant unable to express the E1B-55K and E4orf3 genes appeared to arrest in a mitotic-like state. Cells infected early in G1 of the cell cycle were predisposed to arrest in this state at late times of infection. This arrested state, which displays hallmarks of mitotic catastrophe, was prevented by expression of either the E1B-55K or the E4orf3 genes. However, E1B-55K mutant virus-infected cells became trapped in a mitotic-like state in the presence of the microtubule poison colcemid, suggesting that the two viral proteins restrict entry into mitosis or facilitate exit from mitosis in order to prevent infected cells from arresting in mitosis. The E1B-55K protein appeared to prevent inappropriate entry into mitosis through its interaction with the cellular tumor suppressor protein p53. The E4orf3 protein facilitated exit from mitosis by possibly mislocalizing and functionally inactivating cyclin B1. When expressed in noninfected cells, E4orf3 overcame the mitotic arrest caused by the degradation-resistant R42A cyclin B1 variant.

IMPORTANCE

Cells that are infected with adenovirus type 5 early in G1 of the cell cycle are predisposed to arrest in a mitotic-like state in a p53-dependent manner. The adenoviral E1B-55K protein prevents entry into mitosis. This newly described activity for the E1B-55K protein appears to depend on the interaction between the E1B-55K protein and the tumor suppressor p53. The adenoviral E4orf3 protein facilitates exit from mitosis, possibly by altering the intracellular distribution of cyclin B1. By preventing entry into mitosis and by promoting exit from mitosis, these adenoviral proteins act to prevent the infected cell from arresting in a mitotic-like state.

Viral genes as oncolytic agents for cancer therapy

Many viruses have the ability to modulate the apoptosis, and to accomplish it; viruses encode proteins which specifically interact with the cellular signaling pathways. While some viruses encode proteins, which inhibit the apoptosis or death of the infected cells, there are viruses whose encoded proteins can kill the infected cells by multiple mechanisms, including apoptosis. A particular class of these viruses has specific gene(s) in their genomes which, upon ectopic expression, can kill the tumor cells selectively without affecting the normal cells. These genes and their encoded products have demonstrated great potential to be developed as novel anticancer therapeutic agents which can specifically target and kill the cancer cells leaving the normal cells unharmed. In this review, we will discuss about the viral genes having specific cancer cell killing properties, what is known about their functioning, signaling pathways and their therapeutic applications as anticancer agents.

Analysis by live imaging of effects of the adenovirus E4orf4 protein on passage through mitosis of H1299 tumor cells

The adenovirus E4orf4 protein expressed at high levels kills cancer cells but not normal human primary cells. Previous studies suggested that disruption of processes that regulate mitosis may underlie E4orf4 toxicity. Here we have used live imaging to show that E4orf4 induces a slowed defective transit through mitosis, exhibiting a delay or often failure in cytokinesis that may account for an accumulation of G1 tetraploids in the population of dying E4orf4-expressing cells.

Interaction of adenovirus type 5 E4orf4 with the nuclear pore subunit Nup205 is required for proper viral gene expression

Adenovirus type 5 E4orf4 is a multifunctional protein that regulates viral gene expression. The activities of E4orf4 are mainly mediated through binding to protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A). E4orf4 recruits target phosphoproteins into complexes with PP2A, resulting in dephosphorylation of host factors, such as SR splicing factors. In the current study, we utilized immunoprecipitation followed by mass spectrometry to identify novel E4orf4-interacting proteins. In this manner we identified Nup205, a component of the nuclear pore complex (NPC) as an E4orf4 interacting partner. The arginine-rich motif (ARM) of E4orf4 was required for interaction with Nup205 and for nuclear localization of E4orf4. ARMs are commonly found on viral nuclear proteins, and we observed that Nup205 interacts with three different nuclear viral proteins containing ARMs. E4orf4 formed a trimolecular complex containing both Nup205 and PP2A. Furthermore, Nup205 complexed with E4orf4 was hypophosphorylated, suggesting that the protein is specifically targeted for dephosphorylation. An adenovirus mutant that does not express E4orf4 (Orf4(-)) displayed elevated early and reduced late gene expression relative to that of the wild type. We observed that knockdown of Nup205 resulted in the same phenotype as that of the Orf4(-) virus, suggesting that the proteins function as a complex to regulate viral gene expression. Furthermore, knockdown of Nup205 resulted in a more than a 4-fold reduction in the replication of wild-type adenovirus. Our data show for first time that Ad5 E4orf4 interacts with and modifies the NPC and that Nup205-E4orf4 binding is required for normal regulation of viral gene expression and viral replication.

IMPORTANCE

Nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) are highly regulated conduits in the nuclear membrane that control transport of macromolecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm. Viruses that replicate in the nucleus must negotiate the NPC during nuclear entry, and viral DNA, mRNA, and proteins must then be exported from the nucleus. Several types of viruses restructure the NPC to facilitate replication, and the current study shows that adenovirus type 5 (Ad5) utilizes a novel mechanism to modify NPC function. We demonstrate that a subunit of the NPC, Nup205, is a phosphoprotein that is actively dephosphorylated by the Ad5-encoded protein E4orf4. Moreover, Nup205 is required by Ad5 to regulate viral gene expression and efficient viral replication. Nup205 is a nonstructural subunit that is responsible for the gating functions of the NPC, and this study suggests for the first time that the NPC is regulated by phosphorylation both during normal physiology and viral infection.

NTPDASE4 gene products cooperate with the adenovirus E4orf4 protein through PP2A-dependent and -independent mechanisms and contribute to induction of cell death

The adenovirus E4orf4 protein induces nonclassical apoptosis in mammalian cells through at least two complementing pathways regulated by the interactions of E4orf4 with protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) and Src kinases. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells, which do not express Src, E4orf4 induces PP2A-dependent toxicity. The yeast Golgi apyrase Ynd1 was found to contribute to E4orf4-mediated toxicity and to interact with the PP2A-B55α regulatory subunit. In addition, a mammalian Ynd1 orthologue, the NTPDASE4 gene product Golgi UDPase, was shown to physically interact with E4orf4. Here we report that knockdown of NTPDASE4 suppressed E4orf4-induced cell death. Conversely, overexpression of the NTPDASE4 gene products Golgi UDPase and LALP70 enhanced E4orf4-induced cell killing. We found that similarly to results obtained in yeast, the apyrase activity of mammalian UDPase was not required for its contribution to E4orf4-induced toxicity. The interaction between E4orf4 and UDPase had two consequences: a PP2A-dependent one, resulting in increased UDPase levels, and a PP2A-independent outcome that led to dissociation of large UDPase-containing protein complexes. The present report extends our findings in yeast to E4orf4-mediated death of mammalian cells, and combined with previous results, it suggests that the E4orf4-NTPDase4 pathway, partly in association with PP2A, may provide an alternative mechanism for the E4orf4-Src pathway to contribute to the cytoplasmic death function of E4orf4.

IMPORTANCE

The adenovirus E4orf4 protein contributes to regulation of the progression of virus infection from the early to the late phase, and when expressed alone, it induces a unique caspase-independent programmed cell death which is more efficient in cancer cells than in normal cells. The interactions of E4orf4 with cellular proteins that mediate its functions, such as PP2A and Src kinases, are highly conserved in evolution. The results presented here reveal that the NTPDASE4 gene product Golgi UDPase, first discovered to contribute to E4orf4 toxicity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, associates with E4orf4 and plays a role in induction of cell death in mammalian cells. Details of the functional interaction between E4orf4, PP2A, and the UDPase are described. Identification of the evolutionarily conserved mechanisms underlying E4orf4 activity will increase our understanding of the interactions between the virus and the host cell and will contribute to our grasp of the unique mode of E4orf4-induced cell death.

Induction of cancer-specific cell death by the adenovirus E4orf4 protein

The adenovirus E4orf4 protein is a multifunctional viral regulator that contributes to temporal regulation of the progression of viral infection. When expressed alone, outside the context of the virus, E4orf4 induces p53-independent cell-death in transformed cells. Oncogenic transformation of primary cells in tissue culture sensitizes them to cell killing by E4orf4, indicating that E4orf4 research may have implications for cancer therapy. It has also been reported that E4orf4 induces a caspase-independent, non-classical apoptotic pathway, which maintains crosstalk with classical caspase-dependent pathways. Furthermore, several E4orf4 activities in the nucleus and in the cytoplasm and various protein partners contribute to cell killing by this viral protein. In the following chapter I summarize the current knowledge of the unique mode of E4orf4-induced cell death and its underlying mechanisms. Although several explanations for the cancer-specificity of E4orf4-induced toxicity have been proposed, a better grasp of the mechanisms responsible for E4orf4-induced cell death is required to elucidate the differential sensitivity of normal and cancer cells to E4orf4.

A functional interplay between the small GTPase Rab11a and mitochondria-shaping proteins regulates mitochondrial positioning and polarization of the actin cytoskeleton downstream of Src family kinases

It is believed that mitochondrial dynamics is coordinated with endosomal traffic rates during cytoskeletal remodeling, but the mechanisms involved are largely unknown. The adenovirus early region 4 ORF4 protein (E4orf4) subverts signaling by Src family kinases (SFK) to perturb cellular morphology, membrane traffic, and organellar dynamics and to trigger cell death. Using E4orf4 as a model, we uncovered a functional connection between mitochondria-shaping proteins and the small GTPase Rab11a, a key regulator of polarized transport via recycling endosomes. We found that E4orf4 induced dramatic changes in the morphology of mitochondria along with their mobilization at the vicinity of a polarized actin network typifying E4orf4 action, in a manner controlled by SFK and Rab11a. Mitochondrial remodeling was associated with increased proximity between Rab11a and mitochondrial membranes, changes in fusion-fission dynamics, and mitochondrial relocalization of the fission factor dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1), which was regulated by the Rab11a effector protein FIP1/RCP. Knockdown of FIP1/RCP or inhibition of Drp1 markedly impaired mitochondrial remodeling and actin assembly, involving Rab11a-mediated mitochondrial dynamics in E4orf4-induced signaling. A similar mobilization of mitochondria near actin-rich structures was mediated by Rab11 and Drp1 in viral Src-transformed cells and contributed to the biogenesis of podosome rosettes. These findings suggest a role for Rab11a in the trafficking of Drp1 to mitochondria upon SFK activation and unravel a novel functional interplay between Rab11a and mitochondria during reshaping of the cell cytoskeleton, which would facilitate mitochondria redistribution near energy-requiring actin-rich structures.

Identification of the adenovirus E4orf4 protein binding site on the B55α and Cdc55 regulatory subunits of PP2A: Implications for PP2A function, tumor cell killing and viral replication

Adenovirus E4orf4 protein induces the death of human cancer cells and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Binding of E4orf4 to the B/B55/Cdc55 regulatory subunit of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is required, and such binding inhibits PP2A^B55 activity leading to dose-dependent cell death. We found that E4orf4 binds across the putative substrate binding groove predicted from the crystal structure of B55α such that the substrate p107 can no longer interact with PP2A^B55α. We propose that E4orf4 inhibits PP2A^B55 activity by preventing access of substrates and that at high E4orf4 levels this inhibition results in cell death through the failure to dephosphorylate substrates required for cell cycle progression. However, E4orf4 is expressed at much lower and less toxic levels during a normal adenovirus infection. We suggest that in this context E4orf4 largely serves to recruit novel substrates such as ASF/SF2/SRSF1 to PP2A^B55 to enhance adenovirus replication. Thus E4orf4 toxicity probably represents an artifact of overexpression and does not reflect the evolutionary function of this viral product.

The adenovirus E4orf4 protein when expressed alone at high levels induces the death of human cancer cells but not normal primary cells. It also is toxic in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which we have used as a model system in some studies. Toxicity induced by the E4orf4 protein is largely dependent on its ability to associate with the highly conserved B/B55/Cdc55 class of regulatory subunits of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), of which the mammalian B55α species is best characterized structurally. We showed previously that binding to B55α appears to inhibit PP2A activity against at least some substrates. In the present study, we mapped the E4orf4 binding site on both yeast Cdc55 and mammalian B55α and propose how such binding may inhibit PP2A activity. The implications of E4orf4 binding on PP2A activity are of significant scientific interest in terms of the process by which PP2A recognizes and dephosphorylates its substrates. We also propose that E4orf4 binding in the context of viral replication serves the quite different function of introducing novel substrates for dephosphorylation by the PP2A holoenzyme.

Evolution of oncolytic viruses: novel strategies for cancer treatment

Many viruses have documented oncolytic activity, with the first evidence observed clinically over a decade ago. In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in the field of oncolytic viruses. Viruses may be innately oncotropic, lacking the ability to cause disease in people or they may require engineering to allow selective tumor targeting and attenuation of pathogenicity. Following infection of a neoplastic cell, several events may occur, including direct viral oncolysis, apoptosis, necrotic cell death and autophagic cellular demise. Of late, a large body of work has recognized the ability of oncolytic viruses (OVs) to activate the innate and adaptive immune system, as well as directly killing tumors. The production of viruses expressing transgenes encoding for cytokines, colony-stimulating factors, costimulatory molecules and tumor-associated antigens has been able to further incite immune responses against target tumors. Multiple OVs are now in the advanced stages of clinical trials, with several individual viruses having completed their respective trials with positive results. This review introduces the multiple mechanisms by which OVs are able to act as an antineoplastic therapy, either on their own or in combination with other more traditional treatment modalities. The full benefit and the place where OVs will be integrated into standard-of-care therapies will be determined with ongoing studies ranging from the laboratory to the patient. With various different viruses now in the clinic this therapeutic option is beginning to prove its worth, and the versatility of these agents means further innovative and novel applications will continue to be developed.

Adenovirus E4orf4 protein-induced death of p53-/- H1299 human cancer cells follows a G1 arrest of both tetraploid and diploid cells due to a failure to initiate DNA synthesis

The adenovirus E4orf4 protein selectively kills human cancer cells independently of p53 and thus represents a potentially promising tool for the development of novel antitumor therapies. Previous studies suggested that E4orf4 induces an arrest or a delay in mitosis and that both this effect and subsequent cell death rely largely on an interaction with the B55 regulatory subunit of protein phosphatase 2A. In the present report, we show that the death of human H1299 lung carcinoma cells induced by expression of E4orf4 is typified not by an accumulation of cells arrested in mitosis but rather by the presence of both tetraploid and diploid cells that are arrested in G1 because they are unable to initiate DNA synthesis. We believe that these E4orf4-expressing cells eventually die by various processes, including those resulting from mitotic catastrophe.

E4orf4 induces PP2A- and Src-dependent cell death in Drosophila melanogaster and at the same time inhibits classic apoptosis pathways

The adenovirus E4orf4 protein regulates the progression of viral infection, and when expressed alone in mammalian tissue culture cells it induces protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A)-B55- and Src-dependent cell death, which is more efficient in oncogene-transformed cells than in normal cells. This form of cell death is caspase-independent, although it interacts with classic caspase-dependent apoptosis. PP2A-B55-dependent E4orf4-induced toxicity is highly conserved in evolution from yeast to mammalian cells. In this work we investigated E4orf4-induced cell death in a whole multicellular organism, Drosophila melanogaster. We show that E4orf4 induced low levels of cell killing, caused by both caspase-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Drosophila PP2A-B55 (twins/abnormal anaphase resolution) and Src64B contributed additively to this form of cell death. Our results provide insight into E4orf4-induced cell death, demonstrating that in parallel to activating caspase-dependent apoptosis, E4orf4 also inhibited this form of cell death induced by the proapoptotic genes reaper, head involution defective, and grim. The combination of both induction and inhibition of caspase-dependent cell death resulted in low levels of tissue damage that may explain the inefficient cell killing induced by E4orf4 in normal cells in tissue culture. Furthermore, E4orf4 inhibited JNK-dependent cell killing as well. However, JNK inhibition did not impede E4orf4-induced toxicity and even enhanced it, indicating that E4orf4-induced cell killing is a distinctive form of cell death that differs from both JNK- and Rpr/Hid/Grim-induced forms of cell death.

Structure- and modeling-based identification of the adenovirus E4orf4 binding site in the protein phosphatase 2A B55α subunit

BACKGROUND

The adenovirus E4orf4 protein must bind protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) for its functions.

RESULTS

The E4orf4 binding site in PP2A was mapped to the α1,α2 helices of the B55α subunit.

CONCLUSION

The E4orf4 binding site in PP2A-B55α lies above the substrate binding site and does not overlap it.

SIGNIFICANCE

A novel functional significance was assigned to the α1,α2 helices of the PP2A-B55α subunit. The adenovirus E4orf4 protein regulates the progression of viral infection and when expressed outside the context of the virus it induces nonclassical, cancer cell-specific apoptosis. All E4orf4 functions known to date require an interaction between E4orf4 and protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), which is mediated through PP2A regulatory B subunits. Specifically, an interaction with the B55α subunit is required for induction of cell death by E4orf4. To gain a better insight into the E4orf4-PP2A interaction, mapping of the E4orf4 interaction site in PP2A-B55α has been undertaken. To this end we used a combination of bioinformatics analyses of PP2A-B55α and of E4orf4, which led to the prediction of E4orf4 binding sites on the surface of PP2A-B55α. Mutation analysis, immunoprecipitation, and GST pulldown assays based on the theoretical predictions revealed that the E4orf4 binding site included the α1 and α2 helices described in the B55α structure and involved at least three residues located in these helices facing each other. Loss of E4orf4 binding was accompanied by reduced contribution of the B55α mutants to E4orf4-induced cell death. The identified E4orf4 binding domain lies above the previously described substrate binding site and does not overlap it, although its location could be consistent with direct or indirect effects on substrate binding. This work assigns for the first time a functional significance to the α1,α2 helices of B55α, and we suggest that the binding site defined by these helices could also contribute to interactions between PP2A and some of its cellular regulators.

Preparation of cell-lines for conditional knockdown of gene expression and measurement of the knockdown effects on E4orf4-induced cell death

Functional inactivation of gene expression in mammalian cells is crucial for the study of the contribution of a protein of interest to various pathways(1,2). However, conditional knockdown of gene expression is required in cases when constitutive knockdown is not tolerated by cells for a long period of time(3-5). Here we describe a protocol for preparation of cell lines allowing conditional knockdown of subunits of the ACF chromatin remodeling factor. These cell lines facilitate the determination of the contribution of ACF to induction of cell death by the adenovirus E4orf4 protein(6). Sequences encoding short hairpin RNAs for the Acf1 and SNF2h subunits of the ACF chromatin remodeling factor were cloned next to a doxycycline-inducible promoter in a plasmid also containing a gene for the neomycin resistance gene. Neomycin-resistant cell clones were selected in the presence of G418 and isolated. The resulting cell lines were induced by doxycycline treatment, and once Acf1 or SNF2h expression levels were reduced, the cells were transfected with a plasmid encoding E4orf4 or an empty vector. To confirm the specific effect of the shRNA constructs, Acf1 or SNF2h protein levels were restored to WT levels by cotransfection with a plasmid expressing Acf1 or SNF2h which were rendered resistant to the shRNA by introduction of silent mutations. The ability of E4orf4 to induce cell death in the various samples was determined by a DAPI assay, in which the frequency of appearance of nuclei with apoptotic morphologies in the transfected cell population was measured(7-9). The protocol described here can be utilized for determination of the functional contribution of various proteins to induction of cell death by their protein partners in cases when constitutive knockdown may be cell lethal.

The adenovirus E4orf4 protein targets PP2A to the ACF chromatin-remodeling factor and induces cell death through regulation of SNF2h-containing complexes

The adenovirus E4 open-reading-frame 4 (E4orf4) protein regulates the progression of viral infection and when expressed individually it induces non-classical apoptosis in transformed cells. Here we show that E4orf4 associates with the ATP-dependent chromatin-remodeling factor ACF that consists of a sucrose non fermenting-2h (SNF2h) ATPase and an Acf1 regulatory subunit. Furthermore, E4orf4 targets protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) to this complex and to chromatin. Obstruction of SNF2h activity inhibits E4orf4-induced cell death, whereas knockdown of Acf1 results in enhanced E4orf4-induced toxicity in both mammalian and yeast cells, and Acf1 overexpression inhibits E4orf4′s ability to downregulate early adenovirus gene expression in the context of viral infection. Knockdown of the Acf1 homolog, WSTF, inhibits E4orf4-induced cell death. Based on these results we suggest that the E4orf4–PP2A complex inhibits ACF and facilitates enhanced chromatin-remodeling activities of other SNF2h-containing complexes, such as WSTF–SNF2h. The resulting switch in chromatin remodeling determines life versus death decisions and contributes to E4orf4 functions during adenovirus infection.

The cytosolic tail of the Golgi apyrase Ynd1 mediates E4orf4-induced toxicity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The adenovirus E4 open reading frame 4 (E4orf4) protein contributes to regulation of the progression of virus infection. When expressed individually, E4orf4 was shown to induce non-classical transformed cell-specific apoptosis in mammalian cells. At least some of the mechanisms underlying E4orf4-induced toxicity are conserved from yeast to mammals, including the requirement for an interaction of E4orf4 with protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A). A genetic screen in yeast revealed that the Golgi apyrase Ynd1 associates with E4orf4 and contributes to E4orf4-induced toxicity, independently of Ynd1 apyrase activity. Ynd1 and PP2A were shown to contribute additively to E4orf4-induced toxicity in yeast, and to interact genetically and physically. A mammalian orthologue of Ynd1 was shown to bind E4orf4 in mammalian cells, confirming the evolutionary conservation of this interaction. Here, we use mutation analysis to identify the cytosolic tail of Ynd1 as the protein domain required for mediation of the E4orf4 toxic signal and for the interaction with E4orf4. We also show that E4orf4 associates with cellular membranes in yeast and is localized at their cytoplasmic face. However, E4orf4 is membrane-associated even in the absence of Ynd1, suggesting that additional membrane proteins may mediate E4orf4 localization. Based on our results and on a previous report describing a collection of Ynd1 protein partners, we propose that the Ynd1 cytoplasmic tail acts as a scaffold, interacting with a multi-protein complex, whose targeting by E4orf4 leads to cell death.

Genetic analysis of B55alpha/Cdc55 protein phosphatase 2A subunits: association with the adenovirus E4orf4 protein

The human adenovirus E4orf4 protein is toxic in both human tumor cells and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Previous studies indicated that most of this toxicity is dependent on an interaction of E4orf4 protein with the B55 class of regulatory subunits of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) and in yeast with the B55 homolog Cdc55. We have found previously that E4orf4 inhibits PP2A activity against at least some substrates. In an attempt to understand the mechanism of this inhibition, we used a genetic approach to identify residues in the seven-bladed β-propeller proteins B55α and Cdc55 required for E4orf4 binding. In both cases, amino-terminal polypeptides composed only of blade 1 and at least part of blade 2 were found to bind E4orf4 and overexpression blocked E4orf4 toxicity in yeast. Furthermore, certain amino acid substitutions in blades 1 and 2 within full-length B55α and Cdc55 resulted in loss of E4orf4 binding. Recent mutational analysis has suggested that segments of blades 1 and 2 present on the top face of B55α form part of the "substrate-binding groove." Additionally, these segments are in close proximity to the catalytic C subunit of the PP2A holoenzyme. Thus, our results are consistent with the hypothesis that E4orf4 binding could affect the access of substrates, resulting in the failure to dephosphorylate some PP2A substrates.

Src-family kinase signaling, actin-mediated membrane trafficking and organellar dynamics in the control of cell fate: lessons to be learned from the adenovirus E4orf4 death factor

Evidence has accumulated that there are different modes of regulated cell death, which share overlapping signaling pathways. Cytoskeletal-dependent inter-organellar communication as a result of protein and lipid trafficking in and out of organelles has emerged as a common, key issue in the regulation of cell death modalities. The movement of proteins and lipids between cell compartments is believed to relay death signals in part through modifications of organelles dynamics. Little is known, however, regarding how trafficking is integrated within stress signaling pathways directing organelle-specific remodeling events. In this review, we discuss emerging evidence supporting a role for regulated changes in actin dynamics and intracellular membrane flow. Based on recent findings using the adenovirus E4orf4 death factor as a probing tool to tackle the mechanistic underpinnings that control alternative modes of cell death, we propose the existence of multifunctional platforms at the endosome-Golgi interface regulated by SFK-signaling. These endosomal platforms could be mobilized during cell activation processes to reorganize cellular membranes and promote inter-organelle signaling.

Adenovirus protein E4orf4 induces premature APCCdc20 activation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by a protein phosphatase 2A-dependent mechanism

Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) has been implicated in cell cycle progression and mitosis; however, the complexity of PP2A regulation via multiple B subunits makes its functional characterization a significant challenge. The human adenovirus protein E4orf4 has been found to induce both high Cdk1 activity and the accumulation of cells in G(2)/M in both mammalian and yeast cells, effects which are largely dependent on the B55/Cdc55 regulatory subunit of PP2A. Thus, E4orf4 represents a unique means by which the function of a specific form of PP2A can be delineated in vivo. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, only two PP2A regulatory subunits exist, Cdc55 and Rts1. Here, we show that E4orf4-induced toxicity depends on a functional interaction with Cdc55. E4orf4 expression correlates with the inappropriate reduction of Pds1 and Scc1 in S-phase-arrested cells. The unscheduled loss of these proteins suggests the involvement of PP2A(Cdc55) in the regulation of the Cdc20 form of the anaphase-promoting complex (APC). Contrastingly, activity of the Hct1 form of the APC is not induced by E4orf4, as demonstrated by the observed stability of its substrates. We propose that E4orf4, being a Cdc55-specific inhibitor of PP2A, demonstrates the role of PP2A(Cdc55) in regulating APC(Cdc20) activity.

Bovine ephemeral fever virus-induced apoptosis requires virus gene expression and activation of Fas and mitochondrial signaling pathway

Although induction of apoptosis by bovine ephemeral fever virus (BEFV) in several cell lines has been previously demonstrated by our laboratory, less information is available on the process of BEFV-induced apoptosis in terms of cellular pathways and specific proteins involved. In order to determine the step in viral life cycle at which apoptosis of infected cells is triggered, chemical and physical agents were used to block viral infection. Treatment of BHK-21 infected cells with ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) or cells infected with UV-inactivated BEFV was seen to abrogate virus apoptosis induction, suggesting that virus uncoating and gene expression are required for the induction of apoptosis. Using soluble death receptors Fc:Fas chimera to block Fas signaling, BEFV-induced apoptosis was inhibited in cells. BEFV infection of BHK-21 cells results in the Fas-dependent activation of caspase 8 and cleavage of Bid. This initiated the dissipation of the membrane potential and the release of cytochrome c but not AIF or Smac/DIABLO from mitochondrial into cytoplasm leading to activation of caspase 9. Combined activation of the death receptor and mitochondrial pathways results in activation of the downstream effecter caspase 3 leading to cleavage of PARP. Fas-mediated BEFV-induced apoptosis could be suppressed by the overexpression of Bcl-2 or by treatment with caspase inhibitors and soluble death receptors Fc:Fas chimera. Taken together, this study provided first evidence demonstrating that BEFV-induced apoptosis requires viral gene expression and occurs through the activation of Fas and mitochondrion-mediated caspase-dependent pathways.

The adenovirus E4orf4 protein induces G2/M arrest and cell death by blocking protein phosphatase 2A activity regulated by the B55 subunit

Human adenovirus E4orf4 protein is toxic in human tumor cells. Its interaction with the B alpha subunit of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is critical for cell killing; however, the effect of E4orf4 binding is not known. B alpha is one of several mammalian B-type regulatory subunits that form PP2A holoenzymes with A and C subunits. Here we show that E4orf4 protein interacts uniquely with B55 family subunits and that cell killing increases with the level of E4orf4 expression. Evidence suggesting that B alpha-specific PP2A activity, measured in vitro against phosphoprotein substrates, is reduced by E4orf4 binding was obtained, and two potential B55-specific PP2A substrates, 4E-BP1 and p70(S6K), were seen to be hypophosphorylated in vivo following expression of E4orf4. Furthermore, treatment of cells with low levels of the phosphatase inhibitor okadaic acid or coexpression of the PP2A inhibitor I(1)(PP2A) enhanced E4orf4-induced cell killing and G(2)/M arrest significantly. These results suggested that E4orf4 toxicity results from the inhibition of B55-specific PP2A holoenzymes, an idea that was strengthened by an observed growth arrest resulting from treatment of H1299 cells with B alpha-specific RNA interference. We believe that E4orf4 induces growth arrest resulting in cell death by reducing the global level of B55-specific PP2A activity, thus preventing the dephosphorylation of B55-specific PP2A substrates, including those involved in cell cycle progression.

Localization and importance of the adenovirus E4orf4 protein during lytic infection

The human adenovirus type 5 (Ad5) E4orf4 product has been studied extensively although in most cases as expressed from vectors in the absence of other viral products. Thus, relatively little is known about its role in the context of an adenovirus infection. Although considerable earlier work had indicated that the E4orf4 protein is not essential for replication, a recent study using dl359, an Ad5 mutant believed to produce a nonfunctional E4orf4 protein, suggested that E4orf4 is essential for virus growth in primary small-airway epithelial cells (C. O'Shea, et al., EMBO J. 24:1211-1221, 2005). Hence, to examine further the role of E4orf4 during virus infection, we generated for the first time a set of E4orf4 virus mutants in a common Ad5 genetic background. Such mutant viruses included those that express E4orf4 proteins containing various individual point mutations, those defective entirely in E4orf4 expression, and a mutant expressing wild-type E4orf4 fused to the green fluorescent protein. E4orf4 protein was found to localize primarily in nuclear structures shown to be viral replication centers, in nucleoli, and in perinuclear bodies. Importantly, E4orf4 was shown not to be essential for virus growth in either human tumor or primary cells, at least in tissue culture. Unlike E4orf4-null virus, mutant dl359 appeared to exhibit a gain-of-function phenotype that impairs virus growth. The dl359 E4orf4 protein, which contains a large in-frame internal deletion, clustered in aggregates enriched in Hsp70 and proteasome components. In addition, the late viral mRNAs produced by dl359 accumulated abnormally in a nuclear punctate pattern. Altogether, our results indicate that E4orf4 protein is not essential for virus growth in culture and that expression of the dl359 E4orf4 product interferes with viral replication, presumably through interactions with structures in the nucleus.

JNK-mediated phosphorylation of paxillin in adhesion assembly and tension-induced cell death by the adenovirus death factor E4orf4

The adenovirus type 2 Early Region 4 ORF4 (E4orf4) protein induces a caspase-independent death program in tumor cells involving changes in actin dynamics that are functionally linked to cell killing. Because an increase in myosin II-based contractility is needed for the death of E4orf4-expressing cells, we have proposed that alteration of cytoskeletal tension is part of the signals engaging the death pathway. Yet the mechanisms involved are poorly defined. Herein, we show that the Jun N-terminal kinase JNK is activated in part through a pathway involving Src, Rho, and ROCK (Rho kinase) and contributes to dysregulate adhesion dynamics and to kill cells in response to E4orf4. JNK supports the formation of atypically robust focal adhesions, which are bound to the assembly of the peculiar actomyosin network typifying E4orf4-induced cell death and which are required for driving nuclear condensation. Remarkably, the dramatic enlargement of focal adhesions, actin remodeling, and cell death all rely on paxillin phosphorylation at Ser-178, which is induced by E4orf4 in a JNK-dependent way. Furthermore, we found that Ser-178-paxillin phosphorylation is necessary to decrease adhesion turnover and to enhance the time residency of paxillin at focal adhesions, promoting its recruitment from an internal pool. Our results indicate that perturbation of tensional homeostasis by E4orf4 involves JNK-regulated changes in paxillin adhesion dynamics that are required to engage the death pathway. Moreover, our findings support a role for JNK-mediated paxillin phosphorylation in adhesion growth and stabilization during tension signaling.

The adenovirus E4orf4 protein induces growth arrest and mitotic catastrophe in H1299 human lung carcinoma cells

The human adenovirus E4orf4 protein, when expressed alone, induces p53-independent death in a wide range of cancer cells. Earlier studies by our groups suggested that although in some cases cell death can be associated with some hallmarks of apoptosis, it is not always affected by caspase inhibitors. Thus it is unlikely that E4orf4-induced cell death occurs uniquely through apoptosis. In the present studies using H1299 human lung carcinoma cells as a model system we found that death is induced in the absence of activation of any of the caspases tested, accumulation of reactive oxygen species, or release of cytochrome c from mitochondria. E4orf4 caused a substantial change in cell morphology, including vigorous membrane blebbing, multiple nuclei in many cells and increased cell volume. Most of these characteristics are not typical of apoptosis, but they are of necrosis. FACS analysis and western blotting for cell cycle markers showed that E4orf4-expressing cells became arrested in G(2)/M and also accumulated high levels of cyclin E. The presence of significant numbers of tetraploid and polyploid cells and some cells with micronuclei suggested that E4orf4 appears to induce death in these cells through a process resulting from mitotic catastrophe.

Adenovirus E4orf4 protein downregulates MYC expression through interaction with the PP2A-B55 subunit

The adenovirus E4 open reading frame 4 (E4orf4) protein is a multifunctional viral regulator that is involved in the temporal regulation of viral gene expression by modulating cellular and viral genes at the transcription and translation levels and by controlling alternative splicing of adenoviral late mRNAs. When expressed individually, E4orf4 induces apoptosis in transformed cells. Using oligonucleotide microarray analysis, validated by quantitative real time PCR, we found that MYC (also known as c-Myc) is downregulated early after the induction of E4orf4 expression. As a result, Myc protein levels are reduced in E4orf4-expressing cells. MYC downregulation is observed both when E4orf4 is expressed individually and within the context of viral infection. E4orf4 reduces MYC transcription but does not affect transcriptional elongation or RNA stability. An interaction with the PP2A-B55 subunit is required for the downregulation of MYC by E4orf4. Since Myc overexpression was previously shown to inhibit adenovirus replication, the downregulation of Myc by E4orf4 would contribute to efficient virus infection.

Dephosphorylation of JC virus agnoprotein by protein phosphatase 2A: inhibition by small t antigen

Previous studies have demonstrated that the JC virus (JCV) late regulatory protein agnoprotein is phosphorylated by the serine/threonine-specific protein kinase-C (PKC) and mutants of this protein at the PKC phosphorylation sites exhibit defects in the viral replication cycle. We have now investigated whether agnoprotein phosphorylation is regulated by PP2A, a serine/threonine-specific protein phosphatase and whether JCV small t antigen (Sm t-Ag) is involved in this regulation. Protein-protein interaction studies demonstrated that PP2A associates with agnoprotein and dephosphorylates it at PKC-specific sites. Sm t-Ag was also found to interact with PP2A and this interaction inhibited the dephosphorylation of agnoprotein by PP2A. The interaction domains of Sm t-Ag and agnoprotein with PP2A were mapped, as were the interaction domains of Sm t-Ag with agnoprotein. The middle portion of Sm t-Ag (aa 82-124) was found to be critical for the interaction with both agnoprotein and PP2A and the N-terminal region of agnoprotein for interaction with Sm t-Ag. To further understand the role of Sm t-Ag in JCV regulation, a stop codon was introduced at Ser90 immediately after splice donor site of the JCV early gene and the functional consequences of this mutation were investigated. The ability of this mutant virus to replicate was substantially reduced compared to WT. Next, the functional significance of PP2A in JCV replication was examined by siRNA targeting. Downregulation of PP2A caused a significant reduction in the level of JCV replication. Moreover, the impact of Sm t-Ag on agnoprotein phosphorylation was investigated by creating a double mutant of JCV, where Sm t-Ag stop codon mutant was combined with an agnoprotein triple phosphorylation mutant (Ser7, Ser11 and Thr21 to Ala). Results showed that double mutant behaves much like the triple phosphorylation mutant of agnoprotein during viral replication cycle, which suggests that agnoprotein might be an important target of Sm t-Ag with respect to the regulation of its phosphorylation. Collectively, these results suggest that there is an interplay between agnoprotein, Sm t-Ag and PP2A with respect to the regulation of JCV life cycle and this could be important for the progression of the JCV-induced disease, PML.

Cdc55p-mediated E4orf4 growth inhibition in Saccharomyces cerevisiae is mediated only in part via the catalytic subunit of protein phosphatase 2A

The adenovirus early region 4 open reading frame 4 (E4orf4) protein specifically induces p53-independent cell death of transformed but not normal human cells, suggesting that elucidation of its mechanism may provide important new avenues for cancer therapy. Wild-type E4orf4 and mutants that retain cancer cell toxicity also induce growth inhibition in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which provides a genetically tractable system for studying E4orf4 function. Interaction with the protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) B regulatory subunit is required for E4orf4's effects, suggesting that E4orf4 may function by regulating B subunit-containing heterotrimeric PP2A holoenzymes (PP2A(BAC)), which consist of a B subunit complexed with the PP2A structural (A) and catalytic (C) subunits. However, it is not known whether E4orf4-induced growth inhibition requires interaction with the PP2A C subunit or whether E4orf4 might have PP2A B subunit-dependent effects that are independent of PP2A(BAC) holoenzyme formation. To test these possibilities in S. cerevisiae, we disrupted the stable formation of PP2A(BAC) heterotrimers and thus E4orf4/C subunit association by PP2A C subunit point mutations or by deletion of the gene for the PP2A methyltransferase, Ppm1p, and assayed for effects on E4orf4-induced growth inhibition. Our results support a model in which E4orf4 mediates growth inhibition and cell killing both through PP2A(BAC) heterotrimers and through a B regulatory subunit-dependent pathway(s) that is independent of stable complex formation with the PP2A C subunit. They also indicate that Ppm1p has a function other than regulating the assembly of PP2A heterotrimers and suggest that selective PP2A trimer inhibitors and PP6 inhibitors may be useful as adjuvant anticancer therapies.

Leucine carboxyl methyltransferase-1 is necessary for normal progression through mitosis in mammalian cells

Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is a multifunctional phosphatase that plays important roles in many cellular processes including regulation of cell cycle and apoptosis. Because PP2A is involved in so many diverse processes, it is highly regulated by both non-covalent and covalent mechanisms that are still being defined. In this study we have investigated the importance of leucine carboxyl methyltransferase-1 (LCMT-1) for PP2A methylation and cell function. We show that reduction of LCMT-1 protein levels by small hairpin RNAs causes up to a 70% reduction in PP2A methylation in HeLa cells, indicating that LCMT-1 is the major mammalian PP2A methyltransferase. In addition, LCMT-1 knockdown reduced the formation of PP2A heterotrimers containing the Balpha regulatory subunit and, in a subset of the cells, induced apoptosis, characterized by caspase activation, nuclear condensation/fragmentation, and membrane blebbing. Knockdown of the PP2A Balpha regulatory subunit induced a similar amount of apoptosis, suggesting that LCMT-1 induces apoptosis in part by disrupting the formation of PP2A(BalphaAC) heterotrimers. Treatment with a pan-caspase inhibitor partially rescued cells from apoptosis induced by LCMT-1 or Balpha knockdown. LCMT-1 knockdown cells and Balpha knockdown cells were more sensitive to the spindle-targeting drug nocodazole, suggesting that LCMT-1 and Balpha are important for spindle checkpoint. Treatment of LCMT-1 and Balpha knockdown cells with thymidine dramatically reduced cell death, presumably by blocking progression through mitosis. Consistent with these results, homozygous gene trap knock-out of LCMT-1 in mice resulted in embryonic lethality. Collectively, our results indicate that LCMT-1 is important for normal progression through mitosis and cell survival and is essential for embryonic development in mice.

Cytotoxicity of a recombinant fusion protein of adenovirus early region 4 open reading frame 4 (E4orf4) and human epidermal growth factor on p53-deficient tumor cells

Adenovirus early region 4 open reading frame 4 (E4orf4) protein is a novel cell death factor that selectively induces p53-independent apoptosis in cancer cells, but not in normal human cells. This study presents an approach for inhibiting p53-deficient tumor cell growth by using protein-based E4orf4 that had been genetically fused to epidermal growth factor (EGF) to ensure selective targeting of EGF receptor-overexpressing tumor cells. EGF-E4orf4 enables binding onto the cell surface and is then internalized into Saos-2 cells. The success of the process had been demonstrated by immunofluorescence assay and confocal laser microscopy. After prolonged exposure, E4orf4 remained mostly in the nuclei. EGF-E4orf4 treatment of Saos-2 cells showed dose-dependent cytotoxicity. Nearly 50% of the Saos-2 cells were killed at a concentration of 250 nmol/l. In contrast, EGF-E4orf4 showed no significant inhibitory effect iresn primary cells of human umbilical vein endothelial cells. To confirm the ability of EGF-E4orf4 to induce apoptosis, DNA fragmentation was detected using BrdUTP end-labeling. Flow cytometric analysis revealed a significant increase of apoptotic cells in Saos-2 cells treated with EGF-E4orf4, but not in the case of cells cultured in plain medium (t=0.028, P<0.05). In conclusion, these preliminary results indicate that EGF-E4orf4 could show promise as a new reagent that is more efficient and less toxic in anti-cancer therapy.

Adenovirus E4orf4 hijacks rho GTPase-dependent actin dynamics to kill cells: a role for endosome-associated actin assembly

The adenovirus early region 4 ORF4 protein (E4orf4) triggers a novel death program that bypasses classical apoptotic pathways in human cancer cells. Deregulation of the cell cytoskeleton is a hallmark of E4orf4 killing that relies on Src family kinases and E4orf4 phosphorylation. However, the cytoskeletal targets of E4orf4 and their role in the death process are unknown. Here, we show that E4orf4 translocates to cytoplasmic sites and triggers the assembly of a peculiar juxtanuclear actin-myosin network that drives polarized blebbing and nuclear shrinkage. We found that E4orf4 activates the myosin II motor and triggers de novo actin polymerization in the perinuclear region, promoting endosomes recruitment to the sites of actin assembly. E4orf4-induced actin dynamics requires interaction with Src family kinases and involves a spatial regulation of the Rho GTPases pathways Cdc42/N-Wasp, RhoA/Rho kinase, and Rac1, which make distinct contributions. Remarkably, activation of the Rho GTPases is required for induction of apoptotic-like cell death. Furthermore, inhibition of actin dynamics per se dramatically impairs E4orf4 killing. This work provides strong support for a causal role for endosome-associated actin dynamics in E4orf4 killing and in the regulation of cancer cell fate.

Gene therapy strategies for hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most frequent cancers worldwide. Effective therapy to this cancer is currently lacking, creating an urgent need for new therapeutic strategies for HCC. Gene therapy approach that relies on the transduction of cells with genetic materials, such as apoptotic genes, suicide genes, genes coding for antiangiogenic factors or immunomodulatory molecules, small interfering RNA (siRNA), or oncolytic viral vectors, may provide a promising strategy. The aforementioned strategies have been largely evaluated in the animal models with HCC or liver metastasis. Due to the diversity of vectors and therapeutic genes, being used alone or in combination, gene therapy approach may generate great beneficial effects to control the growth of tumors within the liver.

Inactivating intracellular antiviral responses during adenovirus infection

DNA viruses promote cell cycle progression, stimulate unscheduled DNA synthesis, and present the cell with an extraordinary amount of exogenous DNA. These insults elicit vigorous responses mediated by cellular factors that govern cellular homeostasis. To ensure productive infection, adenovirus has developed means to inactivate these intracellular antiviral responses. Among the challenges to the host cell is the viral DNA genome, which is viewed as DNA damage and elicits a cellular response to inhibit replication. Adenovirus therefore encodes proteins that dismantle the cellular DNA damage machinery. Studying virus-host interactions has yielded insights into the molecular functioning of fundamental cellular mechanisms. In addition, it has suggested ways that viral cytotoxicity can be exploited to offer a selective means of restricted growth in tumor cells as a therapy against cancer. In this review, we discuss aspects of the intracellular response that are unique to adenovirus infection and how adenoviral proteins produced from the early region E4 act to neutralize antiviral defenses, with a particular focus on DNA damage signaling.

YND1 interacts with CDC55 and is a novel mediator of E4orf4-induced toxicity

Adenovirus E4orf4 (early region 4 open reading frame 4) protein induces protein phosphatase 2A-dependent non-classical apoptosis in mammalian cells and irreversible growth arrest in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Oncogenic transformation sensitizes cells to E4orf4-induced cell death. To uncover additional components of the E4orf4 network required for induction of its unique mode of apoptosis, we used yeast genetics to select gene deletions conferring resistance to E4orf4. Deletion of YND1, encoding a yeast Golgi apyrase, conferred partial resistance to E4orf4. However, Ynd1p apyrase activity was not required for E4orf4-induced toxicity. Ynd1p and Cdc55p, the yeast protein phosphatase 2A-B subunit, contributed additively to E4orf4-induced toxicity. Furthermore, concomitant overexpression of one and deletion of the other was detrimental to yeast growth, demonstrating a functional interaction between the two proteins. YND1 and CDC55 also interacted genetically with CDC20 and CDH1/HCT1, encoding activating subunits of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome. In addition to their functional interaction, Ynd1p and Cdc55p interacted physically, and this interaction was disrupted by E4orf4, which remained associated with both proteins. The results suggested that Ynd1p and Cdc55p share a common downstream target whose balanced modulation by the two E4orf4 partners is crucial to viability. Disruption of this balance by E4orf4 may lead to cell death. NTPDase-4/Lalp70/UDPase, the closest mammalian homologue of Ynd1p, associated with E4orf4 in mammalian cells, suggesting that the results in yeast are relevant to the mammalian system.

Replication-selective oncolytic viruses in the treatment of cancer

In the search for novel strategies, oncolytic virotherapy has recently emerged as a viable approach to specifically kill tumor cells. Unlike conventional gene therapy, it uses replication competent viruses that are able to spread through tumor tissue by virtue of viral replication and concomitant cell lysis. Recent advances in molecular biology have allowed the design of several genetically modified viruses, such as adenovirus and herpes simplex virus that specifically replicate in, and kill tumor cells. On the other hand, viruses with intrinsic oncolytic capacity are also being evaluated for therapeutic purposes. In this review, an overview is given of the general mechanisms and genetic modifications by which these viruses achieve tumor cell-specific replication and antitumor efficacy. However, although generally the oncolytic efficacy of these approaches has been demonstrated in preclinical studies the therapeutic efficacy in clinical trails is still not optimal. Therefore, strategies are evaluated that could further enhance the oncolytic potential of conditionally replicating viruses. In this respect, the use of tumor-selective viruses in conjunction with other standard therapies seems most promising. However, still several hurdles regarding clinical limitations and safety issues should be overcome before this mode of therapy can become of clinical relevance.

Nuclear localization of the adenovirus E4orf4 protein is mediated through an arginine-rich motif and correlates with cell death

The adenovirus E4orf4 protein induces p53-independent death of human cancer cells by a mechanism requiring interactions with the Balpha subunit of protein phosphatase 2A. When expressed alone E4orf4 localizes predominantly in the nucleus, although significant levels are also present in the cytoplasm. While tyrosine phosphorylation of E4orf4 and recruitment of Src have been linked with E4orf4 cytoplasmic cell death functions, little is known about the functions of E4orf4 in the nucleus. In this study, we identified an arginine-rich motif (E4ARM; residues 66-75) that is necessary and sufficient for nuclear and nucleolar localization. This motif, which is highly homologous to the arginine-rich nuclear and nucleolar localization motif of some lentiviral proteins, was shown to target heterologous proteins to the nucleus and to nucleoli, functions found to be dependent on the overall charge of the motif rather than on specific residues. Furthermore, mutation of arginine residues to alanines but not to lysines in E4ARM was shown to block such targeting activity and, when introduced into full-length E4orf4, to decrease induction of cell death. Finally, coexpression of the ARM motifs of E4orf4, HIV-1 Tat or Rev along with full-length E4orf4 was seen to decrease E4orf4-dependent cell killing. Thus it appears that targeting of E4orf4 to the nucleus and cell nucleoli by E4ARM is an important component of E4orf4-induced cell death.