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Redox status regulates subcelluar localization of PpTGA1 associated with a BABA-induced priming defence against Rhizopus rot in peach fruit. Mol Biol Rep 2020; 47:6657-6668. [PMID: 32794133 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-020-05719-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
This study attempted to characterize the involvement of a change in the redox status and subcellular localization in the BABA-induced priming resistance of peach fruit against Rhizopus rot. Specifically, 50 mM BABA primed the peaches for the enhanced disease resistance against R. stolonifer, as demonstrated by suppression of the disease development upon pathogen challenge accompanied by the clearly elevated level of TGA transcription factor (PpTGA1) and NPR1 gene (PpNPR1). In addition, the BABA elicitation enhanced the activities of a series of critical enzymes in the PPP and AsA-GSH cycle, and eventually promoted the NADPH and GSH pools, which altered the intracellular redox state towards a highly reductive condition. Additionally, PpTGA1-GFP was localized in the cytoplasm in the absence of BABA treatment or R. stolonifer inoculation, while BABA elicitation plus R. stolonifer inoculation caused PpTGA1-GFP to specifically translocate to the nucleus, where it interacted with PpNPR1 and regulated the positive expression of PR genes. Therefore, the observations implied that BABA could promote the reduction of the redox state, resulting in the translocation of PpTGA1 to the nucleus, which was a prerequisite for the induction of a priming defence against Rhizopus rot in peach.
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Wu L, Cheng A, Wang M, Jia R, Yang Q, Wu Y, Zhu D, Zhao X, Chen S, Liu M, Zhang S, Ou X, Mao S, Gao Q, Sun D, Wen X, Liu Y, Yu Y, Zhang L, Tian B, Pan L, Chen X. Alphaherpesvirus Major Tegument Protein VP22: Its Precise Function in the Viral Life Cycle. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:1908. [PMID: 32849477 PMCID: PMC7427429 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.01908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Alphaherpesviruses are zoonotic pathogens that can cause a variety of diseases in humans and animals and severely damage health. Alphaherpesvirus infection is a slow and orderly process that can lie dormant for the lifetime of the host but may be reactivated when the immune system is compromised. All alphaherpesviruses feature a protein layer called the tegument that lies between the capsid and the envelope. Virus protein (VP) 22 is one of the most highly expressed tegument proteins; there are more than 2,000 copies of this protein in each viral particle. VP22 can interact with viral proteins, cellular proteins, and chromatin, and these interactions play important roles. This review summarizes the latest literature and discusses the roles of VP22 in viral gene transcription, protein synthesis, virion assembly, and viral cell-to-cell spread with the purpose of enhancing understanding of the life cycle of herpesviruses and other pathogens in host cells. The molecular interaction information herein provides important reference data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liping Wu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Anchun Cheng
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Mingshu Wang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Renyong Jia
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Qiao Yang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Ying Wu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Dekang Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xinxin Zhao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Shun Chen
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Mafeng Liu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Shaqiu Zhang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xuming Ou
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Sai Mao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Qun Gao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Di Sun
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xinjian Wen
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yunya Liu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yanling Yu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Ling Zhang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Bin Tian
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Leichang Pan
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiaoyue Chen
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
- Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
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Identification of Marek's Disease Virus VP22 Tegument Protein Domains Essential for Virus Cell-to-Cell Spread, Nuclear Localization, Histone Association and Cell-Cycle Arrest. Viruses 2019; 11:v11060537. [PMID: 31181775 PMCID: PMC6631903 DOI: 10.3390/v11060537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
VP22 is a major tegument protein of alphaherpesviruses encoded by the UL49 gene. Two properties of VP22 were discovered by studying Marek's disease virus (MDV), the Mardivirus prototype; it has a major role in virus cell-to-cell spread and in cell cycle modulation. This 249 AA-long protein contains three regions including a conserved central domain. To decipher the functional VP22 domains and their relationships, we generated three series of recombinant MDV genomes harboring a modified UL49 gene and assessed their effect on virus spread. Mutated VP22 were also tested for their ability to arrest the cell cycle, subcellular location and histones copurification after overexpression in cells. We demonstrated that the N-terminus of VP22 associated with its central domain is essential for virus spread and cell cycle modulation. Strikingly, we demonstrated that AAs 174-190 of MDV VP22 containing the end of a putative extended alpha-3 helix are essential for both functions and that AAs 159-162 located in the putative beta-strand of the central domain are mandatory for cell cycle modulation. Despite being non-essential, the 59 C-terminal AAs play a role in virus spread efficiency. Interestingly, a positive correlation was observed between cell cycle modulation and VP22 histones association, but none with MDV spread.
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Okada A, Kodaira A, Hanyu S, Izume S, Ohya K, Fukushi H. Intracellular localization of Equine herpesvirus type 1 tegument protein VP22. Virus Res 2014; 192:103-13. [PMID: 25192624 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2014.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2014] [Revised: 08/14/2014] [Accepted: 08/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Intracellular localization of Equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) tegument protein VP22 was examined by using a plasmid that expressed VP22 fused with an enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP). Also a recombinant EHV-1 expressing VP22 fused with a red fluorescent protein (mCherry) was constructed to observe the localization of VP22 in infected cells. When EGFP-fused VP22 was overexpressed in the cells, VP22 localized in the cytoplasm and nucleus. Live cell imaging suggested that the fluorescently tagged VP22 also localized in the cytoplasm and nucleus. These results show that VP22 localizes in the cytoplasm and nucleus independently of other viral proteins. Experiments with truncation mutants of pEGFP-VP22 suggested that 154-188 aa might be the nuclear localization signal of EHV-1 VP22.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayaka Okada
- Department of Applied Veterinary Sciences, United Graduated School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
| | - Akari Kodaira
- Department of Applied Veterinary Sciences, United Graduated School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
| | - Sachiko Hanyu
- Department of Applied Veterinary Sciences, United Graduated School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
| | - Satoko Izume
- Department of Applied Veterinary Sciences, United Graduated School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
| | - Kenji Ohya
- Department of Applied Veterinary Sciences, United Graduated School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan; Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
| | - Hideto Fukushi
- Department of Applied Veterinary Sciences, United Graduated School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan; Laboratory of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan.
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5
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Abstract
Vaccines have evolved for hundreds of years, but all utilize the premise that safely pre-exposing the host to some component of a pathogen allows for enhanced immune recognition, and potential protection from disease, upon encountering the pathogen at a later date. Early vaccination strategies used inactivated or attenuated vaccines, many of which contained toxins and other components that resulted in reactogenicity or risk of reversion to virulence. DNA vaccines supplant many of the issues associated with inactivated or attenuated vaccines, but these vaccines tend to provide weak immunological responses, particularly in primates. DNA Electroporation may prove to be the "missing link" in the evolution of DNA vaccines allowing for enhanced immune responses from DNA vaccination in humans thereby resulting in protection from disease post-pathogen exposure.
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Abstract
AbstractBovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) causes a variety of diseases and is globally distributed. It infects via mucosal epithelium, leading to rapid lytic replication and latent infection, primarily in sensory ganglia. Large amounts of virus can be excreted by the host on primary infection or upon recrudescence of latent infection, resulting in disease spread. The bovine immune response to BHV-1 is rapid, robust, balanced, and long-lasting. The innate immune system is the first to respond to the infection, with type I interferons (IFNs), inflammatory cytokines, killing of infected host cells, and priming of a balanced adaptive immune response. The virus possesses a variety of immune evasion strategies, including inhibition of type I IFN production, chemokine and complement binding, infection of macrophages and neutrophils, and latency. BHV-1 immune suppression contributes to the severity of its disease manifestations and to the bovine respiratory disease complex, the leading cause of cattle death loss in the USA.
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Wang S, Wang K, Zheng C. Interspecies heterokaryon assay to characterize the nucleocytoplasmic shuttling of herpesviral proteins. Methods Mol Biol 2013; 1064:131-140. [PMID: 23996254 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-62703-601-6_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Nucleocytoplasmic trafficking of proteins plays important roles in processes of the viral life cycle. Interspecies heterokaryon assay is one of the most effective methods to investigate the nucleocytoplasmic trafficking properties of a protein. In our lab, the interspecies heterokaryon assay has been applied to identify a few herpesviral proteins with nucleocytoplasmic shuttling property. In this chapter, the detailed information and methods of the heterokaryon assay are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Wang
- Institute of Biology and Medical Sciences, Soochow University, Jiangsu Suzhou, PR China
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8
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Herpes simplex virus 1 VP22 regulates translocation of multiple viral and cellular proteins and promotes neurovirulence. J Virol 2012; 86:5264-77. [PMID: 22357273 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.06913-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) protein VP22, encoded by the UL49 gene, is a major virion tegument protein. In the present study, we showed that VP22 was required for efficient redistribution of viral proteins VP16, VP26, ICP0, ICP4, and ICP27 and of cellular protein Hsc-70 to the cytoplasm of infected cells. We found that two dileucine motifs in VP22, at amino acids 235 and 236 and amino acids 251 and 252, were necessary for VP22 regulation of the proper cytoplasmic localization of these viral and cellular proteins. The dileucine motifs were also required for proper cytoplasmic localization of VP22 itself and for optimal expression of viral proteins VP16, VP22, ICP0, UL41, and glycoprotein B. Interestingly, a recombinant mutant virus with alanines substituted for the dileucines at amino acids 251 and 252 had a 50% lethal dose (LD(50)) for neurovirulence in mice following intracerebral inoculation about 10(3)-fold lower than the LD(50) of the repaired virus. Furthermore, the replication and spread of this mutant virus in the brains of mice following intracerebral inoculation were significantly impaired relative to those of the repaired virus. The ability of VP22 to regulate the localization and expression of various viral and cellular proteins, as shown in this study, was correlated with an increase in viral replication and neurovirulence in the experimental murine model. Thus, HSV-1 VP22 is a significant neurovirulence factor in vivo.
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Zheng C, Lin F, Wang S, Xing J. A novel virus-encoded nucleocytoplasmic shuttling protein: the UL3 protein of herpes simplex virus type 1. J Virol Methods 2011; 177:206-10. [PMID: 21864580 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2011.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2011] [Revised: 07/07/2011] [Accepted: 08/04/2011] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) UL3 protein is a nuclear protein. In this study, the molecular mechanism of the subcellular localization of UL3 was characterized by fluorescence microscopy in living cells. A nuclear localization signal (NLS) and a nuclear export signal (NES) were also identified. UL3 was demonstrated to target to the cytoplasm through the NES via chromosomal region maintenance 1 (CRM-1) dependent pathway, and to the nucleus through RanGTP-dependent mechanism. Heterokaryon assays confirmed that UL3 was capable of shuttling between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. These results demonstrate that the UL3 protein is a novel HSV-1 encoded nucleocytoplasmic shuttling protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunfu Zheng
- Molecular Virology and Viral Immunology Research Group, State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Science, 44 Xiaohongshan, Wuchang, Wuhan 430071, China.
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Molecular determinants responsible for the subcellular localization of HSV-1 UL4 protein. Virol Sin 2011; 26:347-56. [PMID: 21979574 DOI: 10.1007/s12250-011-3217-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2011] [Accepted: 09/05/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The function of the herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) UL4 protein is still elusive. Our objective is to investigate the subcellular transport mechanism of the UL4 protein. In this study, fluorescence microscopy was employed to investigate the subcellular localization of UL4 and characterize the transport mechanism in living cells. By constructing a series of deletion mutants fused with enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (EYFP), the nuclear export signals (NES) of UL4 were for the first time mapped to amino acid residues 178 to 186. In addition, the N-terminal 19 amino acids are identified to be required for the granule-like cytoplasmic pattern of UL4. Furthermore, the UL4 protein was demonstrated to be exported to the cytoplasm through the NES in a chromosomal region maintenance 1 (CRM1)-dependent manner involving RanGTP hydrolysis.
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Magico AC, Bell JB. Identification of a classical bipartite nuclear localization signal in the Drosophila TEA/ATTS protein scalloped. PLoS One 2011; 6:e21431. [PMID: 21731746 PMCID: PMC3121794 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0021431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2011] [Accepted: 05/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Drosophila melanogaster wing development has been shown to rely on the activity of a complex of two proteins, Scalloped (Sd) and Vestigial (Vg). Within this complex, Sd is known to provide DNA binding though its TEA/ATTS domain, while Vg modulates this binding and provides transcriptional activation through N- and C-terminal activation domains. There is also evidence that Sd is required for the nuclear translocation of Vg. Indeed, a candidate sequence which shows consensus to the bipartite family of nuclear localization signals (NLSs) has been identified within Sd previously, though it is not known if it is functional, or if additional unpredicted signals that mediate nuclear transport exist within the protein. By expressing various enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) tagged constructs within Drosophila S2 cells, we demonstrate that this NLS is indeed functional and necessary for the proper nuclear localization of Sd. Additionally, the region containing the NLS is critical for the wildtype function of ectopically expressed Sd, in the context of wing development. Using site-directed mutagenesis, we have identified a group of five amino acids within this NLS which is critical for its function, as well as another group of two which is of lesser importance. Together with data that suggests that this sequence mediates interactions with Importin-α3, we conclude that the identified NLS is likely a classical bipartite signal. Further dissection of Sd has also revealed that a large portion of the C-terminal domain of the protein is required its proper nuclear localization. Finally, a Leptomycin B (LB) sensitive signal which appears to facilitate nuclear export is identified, raising the possibility that Sd also contains a nuclear export signal (NES).
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam C. Magico
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - John B. Bell
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
- * E-mail:
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12
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Host cell targets of tegument protein VP22 of herpes simplex virus 1. Arch Virol 2011; 156:1079-84. [DOI: 10.1007/s00705-011-0960-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2010] [Accepted: 02/21/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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13
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Liu L, Bai Y, Zhu D, Song L, Wang H, Dong X, Zhang H, Leng X. Evaluation of the impact of arginine-chitosan/DNA nanoparticles on human naive CD4+ T cells. J Biomed Mater Res A 2010; 96:170-6. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.32966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2010] [Revised: 08/05/2010] [Accepted: 09/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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14
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Song L, Zhu D, Liu L, Dong X, Zhang H, Leng X. Evaluation of the coagulation properties of arginine-chitosan/DNA nanoparticles. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 2010; 95:374-9. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.31726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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15
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Xing J, Wu F, Pan W, Zheng C. Molecular anatomy of subcellular localization of HSV-1 tegument protein US11 in living cells. Virus Res 2010; 153:71-81. [PMID: 20633584 PMCID: PMC7114396 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2010.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2010] [Revised: 07/05/2010] [Accepted: 07/06/2010] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The herpes simplex virus type I (HSV-1) US11 protein is an RNA-binding multifunctional regulator that specifically and stably associates with nucleoli. Although the C-terminal part of US11 was responsible for its nucleolar localization, the precise nucleolar localization signal (NoLS) and nuclear export signal (NES) of US11 and its nuclear import and export mechanisms are still elusive. In this study, fluorescence microscopy was employed to investigate the subcellular localization of US11 and characterize its transport mechanism in living cells. By constructing a series of deletion mutants fused with enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (EYFP), three novel NoLSs of US11 were for the first time mapped to amino acids 84-125, 126-152, and 89-146, respectively. Additionally, the NES was identified to locate between amino acids 89 and 119. Furthermore, the US11 protein was demonstrated to target to the cytoplasm through the NES by chromosomal region maintenance 1 (CRM1)-independent pathway, and to the nucleolus through Ran and importin beta-dependent mechanism that does not require importin alpha 5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junji Xing
- Molecular Virology and Viral Immunology Research Group, State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 44 Xiaohongshan, Wuchang, Wuhan 430071, PR China
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16
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Chang H, Cheng A, Wang M, Zhu D, Jia R, Liu F, Chen Z, Luo Q, Chen X, Zhou Y. Cloning, expression and characterization of gE protein of duck plague virus. Virol J 2010; 7:120. [PMID: 20529349 PMCID: PMC2897786 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-7-120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2010] [Accepted: 06/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The gE protein of duck plague virus is the important membrane glycoprotein, its protein characterization has not been reported. In this study, we expressed and presented the characterization of the DPV gE product. RESULTS According to the sequence of the gE gene, a pair of primers were designed, and the DNA product with 1490bp in size was amplified by using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The PCR product was cloned into pMD18-T vector, and subcloned into pET32a(+), generating the recombinant plasmid pET32a/DPV-gE. SDS-PAGE analysis showed that the fusion pET32a/DPV-gE protein was highly expressed after induction by 0.2 mM IPTG at 30 degrees C for 4.5 h in Rosseta host cells. Over expressed 6xHis-gE fusion protein was purified by nickel affinity chromatography, and used to immunize the rabbits for the preparation of polyclonal antibody. The result of the intracellular localization revealed that the gE protein was appeared to be in the cytoplasm region. The real time PCR, RT-PCR analysis and Western blotting revealed that the gE gene was produced most abundantly during the late phase of replication in DPV-infected cells. CONCLUSIONS In this work, the DPV gE protein was successfully expressed in a prokaryotic expression system, and we presented the basic properties of the DPV gE product for the first time. These properties of the gE protein provided a prerequisite for further functional analysis of this gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Chang
- Avian Diseases Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine of Sichuan Agricultural University, Yaan, Sichuan, China
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Ding Q, Zhao L, Guo H, Zheng AC. The nucleocytoplasmic transport of viral proteins. Virol Sin 2010; 25:79-85. [PMID: 20960304 PMCID: PMC8227907 DOI: 10.1007/s12250-010-3099-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2009] [Accepted: 12/28/2009] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecules can enter the nucleus by passive diffusion or active transport mechanisms, depending on their size. Small molecules up to size of 50-60 kDa or less than 10 nm in diameter can diffuse passively through the nuclear pore complex (NPC), while most proteins are transported by energy driven transport mechanisms. Active transport of viral proteins is mediated by nuclear localization signals (NLS), which were first identified in Simian Virus 40 large T antigen and had subsequently been identified in a large number of viral proteins. Usually they contain short stretches of lysine or arginine residues. These signals are recognized by the importin super-family (importin α and β) proteins that mediate the transport across the nuclear envelope through Ran-GTP. In contrast, only one class of the leucine-rich nuclear export signal (NES) on viral proteins is known at present. Chromosome region maintenance 1 (CRM1) protein mediates nuclear export of hundreds of viral proteins through the recognition of the leucine-rich NES.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiong Ding
- State Key Laboratory, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430071 China
| | - Lei Zhao
- State Key Laboratory, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430071 China
| | - Hong Guo
- State Key Laboratory, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430071 China
| | - Alan C. Zheng
- State Key Laboratory, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430071 China
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Lin F, Ren X, Guo H, Ding Q, Zheng AC. Expression, purification of the UL3 protein of herpes simplex virus type 1, and production of UL3 polyclonal antibody. J Virol Methods 2010; 166:72-6. [PMID: 20188759 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2010.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2009] [Revised: 02/12/2010] [Accepted: 02/18/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a common pathogen which causes infections of the mucocutaneous membranes. The UL3 protein belongs to a group of HSV-1 late proteins. To date, the function of the UL3 protein in cell culture, animal models, and natural infection is unknown. To investigate further the function of the UL3 protein, this study was undertaken to express the UL3 protein and raise a polyclonal antibody. The UL3 gene was cloned in the prokaryotic expression vector pET-28a (+) to yield pET-28a (+)-UL3. The His6-tagged UL3 protein was expressed in Escherichia coli (E. coli) BL21 (DE3) cells and analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). After purification by nickel affinity chromatography and refolding, the recombinant protein was used to raise the anti-UL3 polyclonal antibody. Western blot analysis demonstrated that the UL3 protein was recognized by the polyclonal antibody, and immunofluorescent assay also showed that the antibody was able to recognize the UL3 protein in the cells infected with HSV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fusen Lin
- Molecular Virology and Viral Immunology Research Group, National Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 44 Xiaohongshan, Wuchang, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, China
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19
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Lobanov VA, Zheng C, Babiuk LA, van Drunen Littel-van den Hurk S. Intracellular trafficking of VP22 in bovine herpesvirus-1 infected cells. Virology 2009; 396:189-202. [PMID: 19922972 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2009.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2009] [Revised: 08/05/2009] [Accepted: 10/15/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The intracellular trafficking of different VP22-enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (EYFP) fusion proteins expressed by bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1) recombinants was examined by live-cell imaging. Our results demonstrate that (i) the fusion of EYFP to the C terminus of VP22 does not alter the trafficking of the protein in infected cells, (ii) VP22 expressed during BHV-1 infection translocates to the nucleus through three different pathways, namely early mitosis-dependent nuclear translocation, late massive nuclear translocation that follows a prolonged cytoplasmic stage of the protein in non-mitotic cells, and accumulation of a small subset of VP22 in discrete dot-like nuclear domains during its early cytoplasmic stage, (iii) the addition of the SV40 large-T-antigen nuclear localization signal (NLS) to VP22-EYFP abrogates its early cytoplasmic stage, and (iv) the VP22 (131)PRPR(134) NLS is not required for the late massive nuclear translocation of the protein, but this motif is essential for the targeting of VP22 to discrete dot-like nuclear domains during the early cytoplasmic stage. These results show that the amount of VP22 in the nucleus is precisely regulated at different stages of BHV-1 infection and suggest that the early pathways of VP22 nuclear accumulation may be more relevant to the infection process as the late massive nuclear influx starts when most of the viral progeny has already emerged from the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladislav A Lobanov
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization, University of Saskatchewan, 120 Veterinary Road, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
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20
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Guo H, Ding Q, Lin F, Pan W, Lin J, Zheng AC. Characterization of the nuclear and nucleolar localization signals of bovine herpesvirus-1 infected cell protein 27. Virus Res 2009; 145:312-20. [PMID: 19682510 PMCID: PMC7125963 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2009.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2009] [Revised: 07/31/2009] [Accepted: 07/31/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Bovine herpesvirus-1 infected cell protein 27 (BICP27) was detected predominantly in the nucleolus. The open reading frame of BICP27 was fused with the enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (EYFP) gene to investigate its subcellular localization in live cells and BICP27 was able to direct monomeric, dimeric or trimeric EYFP exclusively to the nucleolus. By constructing a series of deletion mutants, the putative nuclear localization signal (NLS) and nucleolar localization signal (NoLS) were mapped to (81)RRAR(84) and (86)RPRRPRRRPRRR(97) respectively. Specific deletion of the putative NLS, NoLS or both abrogated nuclear localization, nucleolar localization or both respectively. Furthermore, NLS was able to direct trimeric EYFP predominantly to the nucleus but excluded from the nucleolus, whereas NoLS targeted trimeric EYFP primarily to the nucleus, and enriched in the nucleolus with faint staining in the cytoplasm. NLS+NoLS directed trimeric EYFP predominantly to the nucleolus with faint staining in the nucleus. Moreover, deletion of NLS+NoLS abolished the transactivating activity of BICP27 on gC promoter, whereas deletion of either NLS or NoLS did not. The study demonstrated that BICP27 is a nucleolar protein, adding BICP27 to the growing list of transactivators which localize to the nucleolus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Molecular Virology and Viral Immunology Research Group, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 44 Xiaohongshan, Wuchang, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, PR China
| | - Qiong Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Molecular Virology and Viral Immunology Research Group, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 44 Xiaohongshan, Wuchang, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, PR China
| | - Fusen Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Molecular Virology and Viral Immunology Research Group, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 44 Xiaohongshan, Wuchang, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, PR China
| | - Weiwei Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Molecular Virology and Viral Immunology Research Group, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 44 Xiaohongshan, Wuchang, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, PR China
| | - Jianyin Lin
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Fujian Medical University, 88 Jiaotong Road, Fuzhou, Fujian 350001, PR China
| | - Alan C. Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, Molecular Virology and Viral Immunology Research Group, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 44 Xiaohongshan, Wuchang, Wuhan, Hubei 430071, PR China
- Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 27 8719 8676; fax: +86 27 8719 8676.
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Schlegel EFM, Blaho JA. A conserved carboxy-terminal domain in the major tegument structural protein VP22 facilitates virion packaging of a chimeric protein during productive herpes simplex virus 1 infection. Virology 2009; 387:449-58. [PMID: 19307008 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2009.02.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2009] [Revised: 02/11/2009] [Accepted: 02/25/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Recombinant virus HSV-1(RF177) was previously generated to examine tegument protein VP22 function by inserting the GFP gene into the gene encoding VP22. During a detailed analysis of this virus, we discovered that RF177 produces a novel fusion protein between the last 15 amino acids of VP22 and GFP, termed GCT-VP22. Thus, the VP22 carboxy-terminal specific antibody 22-3 and two anti-GFP antibodies reacted with an approximately 28 kDa protein from RF177-infected Vero cells. GCT-VP22 was detected at 1 and 3 hpi. Examination of purified virions indicated that GCT-VP22 was incorporated into RF177 virus particles. These observations imply that at least a portion of the information required for virion targeting is located in this domain of VP22. Indirect immunofluorescence analyses showed that GCT-VP22 also localized to areas of marginalized chromatin during RF177 infection. These results indicate that the last fifteen amino acids of VP22 participate in virion targeting during HSV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth F M Schlegel
- Department of Microbiology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029-6574, USA
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22
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Brehm M, Schenk T, Zhou X, Fanick W, Lin H, Windhorst S, Nalaskowski M, Kobras M, Shears S, Mayr G. Intracellular localization of human Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5 2-kinase. Biochem J 2007; 408:335-45. [PMID: 17705785 PMCID: PMC2267366 DOI: 10.1042/bj20070382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2007] [Revised: 07/18/2007] [Accepted: 08/17/2007] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
InsP6 is an intracellular signal with several proposed functions that is synthesized by IP5K [Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5 2-kinase]. In the present study, we overexpressed EGFP (enhanced green fluorescent protein)-IP5K fusion proteins in NRK (normal rat kidney), COS7 and H1299 cells. The results indicate that there is spatial microheterogeneity in the intracellular localization of IP5K that could also be confirmed for the endogenous enzyme. This may facilitate changes in InsP6 levels at its sites of action. For example, overexpressed IP5K showed a structured organization within the nucleus. The kinase was preferentially localized in euchromatin and nucleoli, and co-localized with mRNA. In the cytoplasm, the overexpressed IP5K showed locally high concentrations in discrete foci. The latter were attributed to stress granules by using mRNA, PABP [poly(A)-binding protein] and TIAR (TIA-1-related protein) as markers. The incidence of stress granules, in which IP5K remained highly concentrated, was further increased by puromycin treatment. Using FRAP (fluorescence recovery after photobleaching) we established that IP5K was actively transported into the nucleus. By site-directed mutagenesis we identified a nuclear import signal and a peptide segment mediating the nuclear export of IP5K.
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Key Words
- euchromatin
- ins(1,3,4,5,6)p5 2-kinase (ip5k)
- in situ hybridization
- nuclear localization
- stress granule
- dapi, 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole
- dtt, dithiothreitol
- egfp, enhanced green fluorescent protein
- fish, fluorescence in situ hybridization
- frap, fluorescence recover after photobleaching
- ipmk, inositol phosphate multikinase
- ipk, inositol phosphate kinase
- ip3k, ins(1,4,5)p3 3-kinase
- ip5k, ins(1,3,4,5,6)p5 2-kinase
- lmb, leptomycin b
- mdd-hplc, metal-dye-detection-hplc
- mrnp, messenger ribonucleoprotein
- nls, nuclear localization sequence
- nrk, normal rat kidney
- orf, open reading frame
- pabp, poly(a)-binding protein
- rnai, rna interference
- roi, region of interest
- sg, stress granule
- sirna, small-interfering rna
- tiar, tia-1-related protein
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria A. Brehm
- *NIEHS/NIH, 111 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, U.S.A
| | - Tobias M. H. Schenk
- †Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Institut für Medizinische Biochemie und Molekularbiologie I: Zelluläre Signaltransduktion, Martinistraße 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Xuefei Zhou
- †Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Institut für Medizinische Biochemie und Molekularbiologie I: Zelluläre Signaltransduktion, Martinistraße 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Werner Fanick
- †Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Institut für Medizinische Biochemie und Molekularbiologie I: Zelluläre Signaltransduktion, Martinistraße 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Hongying Lin
- †Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Institut für Medizinische Biochemie und Molekularbiologie I: Zelluläre Signaltransduktion, Martinistraße 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sabine Windhorst
- †Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Institut für Medizinische Biochemie und Molekularbiologie I: Zelluläre Signaltransduktion, Martinistraße 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Marcus M. Nalaskowski
- †Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Institut für Medizinische Biochemie und Molekularbiologie I: Zelluläre Signaltransduktion, Martinistraße 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Mario Kobras
- †Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Institut für Medizinische Biochemie und Molekularbiologie I: Zelluläre Signaltransduktion, Martinistraße 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Stephen B. Shears
- *NIEHS/NIH, 111 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, U.S.A
| | - Georg W. Mayr
- †Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Institut für Medizinische Biochemie und Molekularbiologie I: Zelluläre Signaltransduktion, Martinistraße 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
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Seibel NM, Eljouni J, Nalaskowski MM, Hampe W. Nuclear localization of enhanced green fluorescent protein homomultimers. Anal Biochem 2007; 368:95-9. [PMID: 17586454 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2007.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2007] [Revised: 04/24/2007] [Accepted: 05/22/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The green fluorescent protein (GFP) and its variants are used in many studies to determine the subcellular localization of other proteins by analyzing fusion proteins. The main problem for nuclear localization studies is the fact that, to some extent, GFP translocates to the nucleus on its own. Because the nuclear import could be due to unspecific diffusion of the relatively small GFP through the nuclear pores, we analyzed the localization of multimers of a GFP variant, the enhanced GFP (EGFP). By detecting the fluorescence of the expressed proteins in gels after nonreducing SDS-PAGE, we demonstrate the integrity of the expressed proteins. Nevertheless, even EGFP homotetramers and homohexamers are found in the nuclei of the five analyzed mammalian cell lines. The use of fusion constructs of small proteins with multimeric EGFP alone, therefore, is not adequate to prove nuclear import processes. Fusion to tetrameric EGFP in combination with a careful quantification of the fluorescence intensities in the nucleus and cytoplasm might be sufficient in many cases to identify a significant difference between the fusion protein and tetrameric EGFP alone to deduce a nuclear localization signal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Maria Seibel
- Department of Biochemistry, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, D-20246 Hamburg, Germany
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24
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Arnoys EJ, Wang JL. Dual localization: proteins in extracellular and intracellular compartments. Acta Histochem 2007; 109:89-110. [PMID: 17257660 DOI: 10.1016/j.acthis.2006.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2006] [Revised: 10/01/2006] [Accepted: 10/09/2006] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The goal of this article is to provide a comprehensive catalog of those proteins documented to exhibit dual localization, being found in both the extracellular compartment (cell surface and extracellular medium) as well as the intracellular compartment (cytosol and nucleus). A large subset of these proteins that show dual localization is found both in the nucleus and outside of cells. Proteins destined to be secreted out of the cell or to be expressed at the cell surface usually enter the endomembrane pathway on the basis of a signal sequence that targets them into the endoplasmic reticulum. Proteins destined for import into the nucleus, on the other hand, usually carry a nuclear localization signal. We have organized our catalog in terms of the presence and absence of these trafficking signals: (a) proteins that contain a signal sequence but no nuclear localization signal; (b) proteins that contain both a signal sequence as well as a nuclear localization signal; (c) proteins that contain a nuclear localization signal but lack a signal sequence; and (d) proteins containing neither a signal sequence nor a nuclear localization signal. Novel insights regarding the activities of several classes of proteins exhibiting dual localization can be derived when one targeting signal is experimentally abrogated. For example, the mitogenic activity of both fibroblasts growth factor-1 and schwannoma-derived growth factor clearly requires nuclear localization, independent of the activation of the receptor tyrosine kinase signaling pathway. In addition, there is a growing list of integral membrane receptors that undergo translocation to the nucleus, with bona fide nuclear localization signals and transcription activation activity. The information provided in this descriptive catalog will, hopefully, stimulate investigations into the pathways and mechanisms of transport between these compartments and the physiological significance of dual localization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J Arnoys
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Calvin College, Grand Rapids, MI 49546, USA
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