Activation of Ras in vitro and in intact fibroblasts by the Vav guanine nucleotide exchange protein

Analysis of Ras-effector interaction competition in large intestine and colorectal cancer context

Cancer is the second leading cause of death globally, and colorectal cancer (CRC) is among the five most common cancers. The small GTPase KRAS is an oncogene that is mutated in ~30% of all CRCs. Pharmacological treatments of CRC are currently unsatisfactory, but much hope rests on network-centric approaches to drug development and cancer treatment. These approaches, however, require a better understanding of how networks downstream of Ras oncoproteins are connected in a particular tissue context – here colon and CRC. Previously we have shown that competition for binding to a ‘hub’ protein, such as Ras, can induce a rewiring of signal transduction networks. In this study, we analysed 56 established and predicted effectors that contain a structural domain with the potential ability to bind to Ras oncoproteins and their link to pathways coordinating intestinal homoeostasis and barrier function. Using protein concentrations in colon tissue and Ras-effector binding affinities, a computational network model was generated that predicted how effectors differentially and competitively bind to Ras in colon context. The model also predicted both qualitative and quantitative changes in Ras-effector complex formations with increased levels of active Ras – to simulate its upregulation in cancer – simply as an emergent property of competition for the same binding interface on the surface of Ras. We also considered how the number of Ras-effector complexes at the membrane can be increased by additional domains present in some effectors that are recruited to the membrane in response to specific conditions (inputs/stimuli/growth factors) in colon context and CRC.

Vav Transformation Requires Activation of Multiple GTPases and Regulation of Gene Expression

Although Vav can act as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for RhoA, Rac1, and Cdc42, its transforming activity has been ascribed primarily to its ability to activate Rac1. However, because activated Vav, but not Rac-specific guanine nucleotide exchange factors, exhibits very potent focus-forming transforming activity when assayed in NIH 3T3 cells, Vav transforming activity must also involve activation of Rac-independent pathways. In this study, we determined the involvement of other Rho family proteins and their signaling pathways in Vav transformation. We found that RhoA, Rac1, and Cdc42 functions are all required for Vav transforming activity. Furthermore, we determined that Vav activation of nuclear factor-κB and the Jun NH2-terminal kinase mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) is necessary for full transformation by Vav, whereas p38 MAPK does not seem to play an important role. We also determined that Vav is a weak activator of Elk-1 via a Ras- and MAPK/extracellular signal-regulated kinase kinase–dependent pathway, and this activity was essential for Vav transformation. Thus, we conclude that full Vav transforming activation is mediated by the activation of multiple small GTPases and their subsequent activation of signaling pathways that regulate changes in gene expression. Because Vav is activated by the epidermal growth factor receptor and other tyrosine kinases involved in cancer development, defining the role of aberrant Vav signaling may identify activities of receptor tyrosine kinases important for human oncogenesis.

Tyrosine Phosphorylation of Vav Stimulates IL-6 Production in Mast Cells by a Rac/c-Jun N-Terminal Kinase-Dependent Pathway

This study investigates whether the guanine nucleotide exchange activity of Vav is linked to cytokine production in mast cells. Overexpression of Vav in the RBL-2H3 mast cell line resulted in the constitutive tyrosine phosphorylation and activation of Vav. We analyzed the functional effect of Vav overexpression on cytokine production. IL-2 and IL-6 mRNA levels were dramatically increased in Vav-overexpressing cells and correlated with increased NF-AT activity. Little or no effect was observed on the mRNA levels of IL-3, IL-4, GM-CSF, TNF-α, and TGF-β. FcεRI engagement did not further enhance IL-2 and IL-6 mRNA levels and only slightly enhanced NF-AT activity, but dramatically increased the mRNA levels of other tested cytokines. To understand the signal transduction required, we focused primarily on IL-6 induction by measuring mitogen-activated protein kinase activity and analyzing the effects of mutant or dominant negative forms of Vav, Rac1, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase-1 (JNK1). Vav overexpression resulted in the constitutive activation of JNK1 with little or no effect on p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and ERK2. This was dependent on Vav-mediated activation of Rac1 as a Dbl domain-mutated Vav, inactive Rac N17, and inactive JNK1 down-regulated the Vav-induced JNK1 or IL-6 responses. Vav expression, but not expression of domain-mutated Vav, increased IL-6 secretion from nonimmortalized bone marrow-derived mast cells upon FcεRI engagement. We conclude that Vav phosphorylation contributes to IL-6 induction in mast cells.

The product of the cph oncogene is a truncated, nucleotide-binding protein that enhances cellular survival to stress

Cph was isolated from neoplastic Syrian hamster embryo fibroblasts initiated by 3-methylcholanthrene (MCA), and was shown to be a single copy gene in the hamster genome, conserved from yeast to human cells, expressed in fetal cells and most adult tissues, and acting synergistically with H-ras in the transformation of murine NIH3T3 fibroblasts. We have now isolated Syrian hamster full-length cDNAs for the cph oncogene and proto-oncogene. Nucleotide sequence analysis revealed that cph was activated in MCA-treated cells by a point-mutational deletion at codon 214, which caused a shift in the normal open reading frame (ORF) and brought a translation termination codon 33 amino acids downstream. While proto-cph encodes a protein (pcph) of 469 amino acids, cph encodes a truncated protein (cph) of 246 amino acids with a new, hydrophobic C-terminus. Similar mechanisms activated cph in other MCA-treated Syrian hamster cells. The cph and proto-cph proteins have partial sequence homology with two protein families: GDP/GTP exchange factors and nucleotide phosphohydrolases. In vitro translated, gel-purified cph proteins did not catalyze nucleotide exchange for H-ras, but were able to bind nucleotide phosphates, in particular ribonucleotide diphosphates such as UDP and GDP. Steady-state levels of cph mRNA increased 6.7-fold in hamster neoplastic cells, relative to a 2.2-fold increase in normal cells, when they were subjected to a nutritional stress such as serum deprivation. Moreover, cph-transformed NIH3T3 cells showed increased survival to various forms of stress (serum starvation, hyperthermia, ionizing radiation), strongly suggesting that cph participates in cellular mechanisms of response to stress.

Vav regulates peptide-specific apoptosis in thymocytes

The protooncogene Vav functions as a GDP/GTP exchange factor (GEF) for Rho-like small GTPases involved in cytoskeletal reorganization and cytokine production in T cells. Gene-targeted mice lacking Vav have a severe defect in positive and negative selection of T cell antigen receptor transgenic thymocytes in vivo, and vav-/- thymocytes are completely resistant to peptide-specific and anti-CD3/anti-CD28-mediated apoptosis. Vav acts upstream of mitochondrial pore opening and caspase activation. Biochemically, Vav regulates peptide-specific Ca2+ mobilization and actin polymerization. Peptide-specific cell death was blocked both by cytochalasin D inhibition of actin polymerization and by inhibition of protein kinase C (PKC). Activation of PKC with phorbol ester restored peptide-specific apoptosis in vav-/- thymocytes. Vav was found to bind constitutively to PKC-theta in thymocytes. Our results indicate that peptide-triggered thymocyte apoptosis is mediated via Vav activation, changes in the actin cytoskeleton, and subsequent activation of a PKC isoform.

Dissociation of intracellular signaling pathways in response to partial agonist ligands of the T cell receptor

The T cell receptor (TCR) is a versatile receptor able to generate different signals that result in distinct T cell responses. The pattern of early signals is determined by the TCR binding kinetics that control the ability of the ligand to coengage TCR and coreceptor. Coengagement of TCR and CD4 results in an agonist signaling pattern with complete tyrosine phosphorylation of TCR subunits, and recruitment and activation of ZAP-70. In contrast, TCR engagement without CD4 coengagement causes a partial agonist type of signaling, characterized by distinct phosphorylation of TCR subunits and recruitment but no activation of ZAP-70. The pathways triggered by partial agonist signaling are unknown. Here, we show that agonists cause association of active lck and active ZAP-70 with p120-GTPase-activating protein (p120-GAP). These associations follow engagement of CD4 or CD3, respectively. In contrast, partial agonists do not activate lck or ZAP-70, but induce association of p120-GAP with inactive ZAP-70. Despite these differences, both agonist and partial agonist signals activate the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. However, MAPK activation by partial agonists is transient, supporting a kinetic, CD4-dependent model for the mechanism of action of variant TCR ligands. Transient MAPK activation may explain some of the responses to TCR partial agonists and antagonists.

Cloning and characterization of Ras-GRF2, a novel guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Ras

Conversion of Ras proteins into an activated GTP-bound state able to bind effector proteins is catalyzed by specific guanine nucleotide exchange factors in response to a large number of extracellular stimuli. Here we report the isolation of mouse cDNAs encoding Ras-GRF2, a multidomain 135-kDa protein containing a COOH-terminal Cdc25-related domain that stimulates release of GDP from Ras but not other GTPases in vitro. Ras-GRF2 bound specifically to immobilized Ras lacking bound nucleotides, suggesting stabilization of the nucleotide-free form of Ras as a mechanism of catalyzing nucleotide exchange. The NH2-terminal region of Ras-GRF2 is predicted to contain features common to various signaling proteins including two pleckstrin homology domains and a Dbl homology region. Ras-GRF2 also contains an IQ motif which was required for its apparent constitutive association with calmodulin in epithelial cells ectopically expressing Ras-GRF2. Transient expression of Ras-GRF2 in kidney epithelial cells stimulated GTP binding by Ras and potentiated calcium ionophore-induced activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (ERK1) dependent upon the IQ motif. Calcium influx caused Ras-GRF2 subcellular localization to change from cytosolic to peripheral, suggesting a possible mechanism for controlling Ras-GRF2 interactions with Ras at the plasma membrane. Epithelial cells overexpressing Ras-GRF2 are morphologically transformed and grow in a disorganized manner with minimal intercellular contacts. Northern analysis indicated a 9-kb GRF2 transcript in brain and lung, where p135 Ras-GRF2 is known to be expressed, and RNAs of 12 kb and 2.2 kb were detected in several tissues. Thus, Ras-GRF2 proteins with different domain structures may be widely expressed and couple diverse extracellular signals to Ras activation.

Lck regulates Vav activation of members of the Rho family of GTPases

Vav is a member of a family of oncogene proteins that share an approximately 250-amino-acid motif called a Dbl homology domain. Paradoxically, Dbl itself and other proteins containing a Dbl domain catalyze GTP-GDP exchange for Rho family proteins, whereas Vav has been reported to catalyze GTP-GDP exchange for Ras proteins. We present Saccharomyces cerevisiae genetic data, in vitro biochemical data, and animal cell biological data indicating that Vav is a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Rho-related proteins, but in similar genetic and biochemical experiments we fail to find evidence that Vav is a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Ras. Further, we present data indicating that the Lck kinase activates the guanine nucleotide exchange factor and transforming activity of Vav.

Vav in natural killer cells is tyrosine phosphorylated upon cross-linking of Fc gamma RIIIA and is constitutively associated with a serine/threonine kinase

Cross-linking of Fc gamma RIIIA (CD16) receptor on natural killer (NK) cells induces receptor-associated tyrosine kinase activation and tyrosine phosphorylation of numerous intracellular proteins, including phospholipase C (PLC)-gamma 1, PLC-gamma 2 and the associated zeta chain. Here we report that Vav, a proto-oncogene, also became tyrosine phosphorylated upon stimulation of CD16 in interleukin 2-activated NK cells (LAK-NK) as well as in an NK cell line, NK3.3. In addition, we observed that in LAK-NK cells, Vav was associated with a 70 kDa protein that also became tyrosine phosphorylated upon CD16 cross-linking. The association of this 70 kDa protein with Vav was disrupted by ionic detergent treatment. Tyrosine phosphorylation of Vav was inhibited by herbimycin A, a specific tyrosine kinase inhibitor. In vitro kinase assays with Vav immunoprecipitates derived from NK3.3 cells or LAK-NK cells resulted in the appearance of a phosphorylated 58 kDa protein, suggesting the presence of a kinase within the Vav immunoprecipitates. Cross-linking of CD16 did not enhance this Vav-associated kinase activity. Phosphoamino acid analysis of the 58 kDa protein revealed that it was phosphorylated only on serine and threonine residues, indicating that an unidentified serine/threonine kinase is constitutively associated with Vav. These observations suggest that the downstream signalling events regulated by Vav and its associated proteins are complex involving both tyrosine kinases as well as the yet unidentified serine/threonine kinase in NK cells.

p95vav associates with the nuclear protein Ku-70

The proto-oncogene vav is expressed solely in hematopoietic cells and plays an important role in cell signaling, although little is known about the proteins involved in these pathways. To gain further information, the Src homology 2 (SH2) and 3 (SH3) domains of Vav were used to screen a lymphoid cell cDNA library by the yeast two-hybrid system. Among the positive clones, we detected a nuclear protein, Ku-70, which is the DNA-binding element of the DNA-dependent protein kinase. In Jurkat and UT7 cells, Vav is partially localized in the nuclei, as judged from immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy studies. By using glutathione S-transferase fusion proteins derived from Ku-70 and coimmunoprecipitation experiments with lysates prepared from human thymocytes and Jurkat and UT7 cells, we show that Vav associates with Ku-70. The interaction of Vav with Ku-70 requires only the 150-residue carboxy-terminal portion of Ku-70, which binds to the 25 carboxy-terminal residues of the carboxy SH3 domain of Vav. A proline-to-leucine mutation in the carboxy SH3 of Vav that blocks interaction with proline-rich sequences does not modify the binding of Ku-70, which lacks this motif. Therefore, the interaction of Vav with Ku-70 may be a novel form of protein-protein interaction. The potential role of Vav/Ku-70 complexes is discussed.

A functional T-cell receptor signaling pathway is required for p95vav activity

Stimulation of the T-cell antigen receptor (TCR) induces activation of multiple tyrosine kinases, resulting in phosphorylation of numerous intracellular substrates. One substrate is p95vav, which is expressed exclusively in hematopoietic and trophoblast cells. It contains a number of structural motifs, including Src homology 2, Src homology 3, and pleckstrin homology domains and a putative guanine nucleotide exchange domain. The role of p95vav in TCR-mediated signaling processes is unclear. Here, we show that overexpression of p95vav alone in Jurkat T cells leads to activation of the nuclear factors, including NFAT, involved in interleukin-2 expression. Furthermore, p95vav synergizes with TCR stimulation in inducing NFAT- and interleukin-2-dependent transcription. In contrast, NFAT activation by a G-protein-coupled receptor is not modulated by p95vav overexpression, suggesting that the effect is specific to the TCR signaling pathways. Although removal of the first 67 amino acids of p95vav activates its transforming potential in NIH 3T3 cells, this region appears to be required for its function in T cells. We further demonstrate that the p95vav-induced NFAT activation is not mimicked by Ras activation, though its function is dependent upon Ras and Raf. Furthermore, the activating function of p95vav is blocked by FK506, suggesting that its activity also depends on calcineurin. To further dissect p95vav involvement in TCR signaling, we analyzed various Jurkat mutants deficient in TCR signaling function or TCR expression and showed that an intact TCR signaling pathway is required for p95vav to function. However, overexpression of p95vav does not appear to influence TCR-induced protein tyrosine phosphorylation or increases in cytoplasmic free calcium. Taken together, our data suggest that p95vav plays an important role at an yet unidentified proximal position in the TCR signaling cascade.

Tyrosine phosphorylation of the proto-oncogene product Vav and its association with the adapter Grb2/Ash in a human leukemia cell line UT-7

The vav proto-oncogene product (Vav) is expressed exclusively in hematopoietic cells and is reported to have guanine nucleotide exchange activity. Here we report that granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, interleukin-3, and erythropoietin induce tyrosine phosphorylation of Vav in a human leukemia cell line UT-7. Tyrosine phosphorylation of Vav is rapid and transient; it occurs within 1 min of the stimulation and at physiological concentrations of the factors. Furthermore, we show that Vav is constitutively associated with the adapter molecule Grb2/Ash in UT-7. These data suggest that tyrosine kinases, the adapter Grb2/Ash, and the guanine nucleotide exchange factor Vav are members of a signaling pathway leading to Ras activation in hematopoietic cells.

Association of the vav proto-oncogene product with poly(rC)-specific RNA-binding proteins

We have used the yeast two-hybrid system to isolate proteins that interact with the carboxy-terminal SH3-SH2-SH3 region of Vav. One of the clones encoded heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein K (hnRNP K), a poly(rC)-specific RNA-binding protein. The interaction between Vav and hnRNP K involves the binding of the most carboxy-terminal SH3 domain of Vav to two proline-rich sequences present in the central region of hnRNP K. Overexpression of Vav in mouse fibroblasts leads to the formation of a stable complex with the endogenous hnRNP K and to the preferential redistribution of this protein to the cytoplasmic fraction. More importantly, Vav and hnRNP K proteins also interact in hematopoietic cells. In addition, Vav associates in vitro with a second 45-kDa poly(rC)-specific RNA-binding protein via its SH3-SH2-SH3 region. These results suggest that Vav plays a role in the regulation of the late steps of RNA biogenesis by modulating the function of poly(rC)-specific ribonucleoproteins.

The vav proto-oncogene is required early in embryogenesis but not for hematopoietic development in vitro

Previous studies have suggested that the vav protooncogene plays an important role in hematopoiesis. To study this further, we have ablated the vav protooncogene by homologous recombination in embryonic stem (ES) cells. Homozygous vav (-/-) ES clones differentiate normally in culture and generate cells of erythroid, myeloid and mast cell lineages. Mice heterozygous for the targeted vav allele do not display any obvious abnormalities. However, homozygous embryos die very early during development. Crosses of vav (+/-) heterozygous mice yield apparently normal vav (-/-) E3.5 embryos but not post-implantation embryos (> or = E7.5). Furthermore, homozygous vav (-/-) blastocysts do not hatch in vitro. These results indicate that vav is essential for an early developmental step(s) that precedes the onset of hematopoiesis. Consistent with the phenotypic analysis of vav (-/-) embryos, we have identified Vav immunoreactivity in the extra-embryonic trophoblastic cell layer but not in the inner embryonic cell mass of E3.5 preimplantation embryos or in the egg cylinder of E6.5 and E7.5 post-implantation embryos. These results suggest that the vav gene is essential for normal trophoblast development and for implantation of the developing embryo.

Binding of Vav to Grb2 through dimerization of Src homology 3 domains

The protooncogenic protein Vav has the structure of an intracellular signal transducer. It is exclusively expressed in cells of hematopoietic lineage and plays a crucial role in hematopoietic cell differentiation. Here we report that both in cell extracts and within intact mammalian cells Vav binds to Grb2 (Sem-5/ASH/Drk), an adaptor molecule which plays a key role in Ras activation. The interaction became evident from a yeast two-hybrid screen and its specificity was demonstrated by in vitro binding assays. It is mediated by an unusual protein-protein binding reaction: dimerization of specific intact Src homology 3 domains of each of the partners. Signaling during hematopoietic lineage differentiation may therefore involve the tissue-specific signal transducer Vav linking into the ubiquitous pathway involving Grb2 and ultimately Ras.

Consensus sequences for ATP-binding sites in protein kinases do not apply to diacylglycerol kinases

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Dbl and Vav mediate transformation via mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways that are distinct from those activated by oncogenic Ras

Vav and Dbl are members of a novel class of oncogene proteins that share significant sequence identity in a approximately 250-amino-acid domain, designated the Dbl homology domain. Although Dbl functions as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) and activator of Rho family proteins, recent evidence has demonstrated that Vav functions as a GEF for Ras proteins. Thus, transformation by Vav and Dbl may be a consequence of constitutive activation of Ras and Rho proteins, respectively. To address this possibility, we have compared the transforming activities of Vav and Dbl with that of the Ras GEF, GRF/CDC25. As expected, GRF-transformed cells exhibited the same reduction in actin stress fibers and focal adhesions as Ras-transformed cells. In contrast, Vav- and Dbl-transformed cells showed the same well-developed stress fibers and focal adhesions observed in normal or RhoA(63L)-transformed NIH 3T3 cells. Furthermore, neither Vav- or Dbl-transformed cells exhibited the elevated levels of Ras-GTP (60%) observed with GRF-transformed cells. Finally, GRF, but not Vav or Dbl, induced transcriptional activation from Ras-responsive DNA elements (ets/AP-1, fos promoter, and kappa B). However, like Ras- and GRF-transformed cells, both Vav- and Dbl-transformed cells exhibited constitutively activated mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) (primarily p42MAPK/ERK2). Since kinase-deficient forms of p42MAPK/ERK2 and p44MAPK/ERK1 inhibited Dbl transformation, MAPK activation may be an important component of its transforming activity. Taken together, our observations indicate that Vav and Dbl transformation is not a consequence of Ras activation and instead may involve the constitutive activation of MAPKs.

Dbl and Vav mediate transformation via mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways that are distinct from those activated by oncogenic Ras

Vav and Dbl are members of a novel class of oncogene proteins that share significant sequence identity in a approximately 250-amino-acid domain, designated the Dbl homology domain. Although Dbl functions as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) and activator of Rho family proteins, recent evidence has demonstrated that Vav functions as a GEF for Ras proteins. Thus, transformation by Vav and Dbl may be a consequence of constitutive activation of Ras and Rho proteins, respectively. To address this possibility, we have compared the transforming activities of Vav and Dbl with that of the Ras GEF, GRF/CDC25. As expected, GRF-transformed cells exhibited the same reduction in actin stress fibers and focal adhesions as Ras-transformed cells. In contrast, Vav- and Dbl-transformed cells showed the same well-developed stress fibers and focal adhesions observed in normal or RhoA(63L)-transformed NIH 3T3 cells. Furthermore, neither Vav- or Dbl-transformed cells exhibited the elevated levels of Ras-GTP (60%) observed with GRF-transformed cells. Finally, GRF, but not Vav or Dbl, induced transcriptional activation from Ras-responsive DNA elements (ets/AP-1, fos promoter, and kappa B). However, like Ras- and GRF-transformed cells, both Vav- and Dbl-transformed cells exhibited constitutively activated mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) (primarily p42MAPK/ERK2). Since kinase-deficient forms of p42MAPK/ERK2 and p44MAPK/ERK1 inhibited Dbl transformation, MAPK activation may be an important component of its transforming activity. Taken together, our observations indicate that Vav and Dbl transformation is not a consequence of Ras activation and instead may involve the constitutive activation of MAPKs.

Tyrosine phosphorylation and activation of Bruton tyrosine kinase upon Fc epsilon RI cross-linking

Tyrosine phosphorylation of several cellular proteins is one of the earliest signaling events induced by cross-linking of the high-affinity receptor for immunoglobulin E (Fc epsilon RI) on mast cells or basophils. Tyrosine kinases activated during this process include the Src family kinases, Lyn, c-Yes, and c-Src, and members of another subfamily, Syk and PTK72 (identical or highly related to Syk). Recently, some of us described two novel tyrosine kinases, Emb and Emt, whose expression was limited to subsets of hematopoietic cells, including mast cells. Emb turned out to be identical to Btk, a gene product defective in human X-linked agammaglobulinemia and in X-linked immunodeficient (xid) mice. Here we report that Fc epsilon RI cross-linking induced rapid phosphorylation on tyrosine, serine, and threonine residues and activation of Btk in mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells. A small fraction of Btk translocated from the cytosol to the membrane compartment following receptor cross-linking. Tyrosine phosphorylation of Btk was not induced by either a Ca2+ ionophore (A23187), phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, or a combination of the two reagents. Co-immunoprecipitation between Btk and receptor subunit beta or gamma was not detected. The data collectively suggest that Btk is not associated with Fc epsilon but that its activation takes place prior to protein kinase C activation and plays a novel role in the Fc epsilon RI signaling pathway.

Tyrosine phosphorylation and activation of Bruton tyrosine kinase upon Fc epsilon RI cross-linking

Tyrosine phosphorylation of several cellular proteins is one of the earliest signaling events induced by cross-linking of the high-affinity receptor for immunoglobulin E (Fc epsilon RI) on mast cells or basophils. Tyrosine kinases activated during this process include the Src family kinases, Lyn, c-Yes, and c-Src, and members of another subfamily, Syk and PTK72 (identical or highly related to Syk). Recently, some of us described two novel tyrosine kinases, Emb and Emt, whose expression was limited to subsets of hematopoietic cells, including mast cells. Emb turned out to be identical to Btk, a gene product defective in human X-linked agammaglobulinemia and in X-linked immunodeficient (xid) mice. Here we report that Fc epsilon RI cross-linking induced rapid phosphorylation on tyrosine, serine, and threonine residues and activation of Btk in mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells. A small fraction of Btk translocated from the cytosol to the membrane compartment following receptor cross-linking. Tyrosine phosphorylation of Btk was not induced by either a Ca2+ ionophore (A23187), phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, or a combination of the two reagents. Co-immunoprecipitation between Btk and receptor subunit beta or gamma was not detected. The data collectively suggest that Btk is not associated with Fc epsilon but that its activation takes place prior to protein kinase C activation and plays a novel role in the Fc epsilon RI signaling pathway.

Direct stimulation of Vav guanine nucleotide exchange activity for Ras by phorbol esters and diglycerides

We recently identified Vav as a Ras-activating guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) stimulated by a T-cell antigen receptor-coupled protein tyrosine kinase (PTK). Here, we describe a novel, protein kinase-independent alternative pathway of Vav activation. Phorbol ester, 1,2-diacylglycerol, or ceramide treatment of intact T cells, Vav immunoprecipitates, or partially purified Vav generated by in vitro translation or COS-1 cell transfection stimulated the Ras exchange activity of Vav in the absence of detectable tyrosine phosphorylation. GEF activity of gel-purified Vav was similarly stimulated by phorbol myristate acetate (PMA). Stimulation was resistant to PTK and protein kinase C inhibitors but was blocked by calphostin, a PMA and diacylglycerol antagonist. In vitro-translated Vav lacking its cysteine-rich domain, or mutated at a single cysteine residue within this domain (C528A), was not stimulated by PMA but was fully activated by p56lck. This correlated with increased binding of radiolabeled phorbol ester to COS-1 cells expressing wild-type, but not C528A-mutated, Vav. Thus, Vav itself is a PMA-binding and -activated Ras GEF. Recombinant interleukin-1 alpha stimulated Vav via this pathway, suggesting that diglyceride-mediated Vav activation may couple PTK-independent receptors which stimulate production of lipid second messengers to Ras in hematopoietic cells.

Direct stimulation of Vav guanine nucleotide exchange activity for Ras by phorbol esters and diglycerides

We recently identified Vav as a Ras-activating guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) stimulated by a T-cell antigen receptor-coupled protein tyrosine kinase (PTK). Here, we describe a novel, protein kinase-independent alternative pathway of Vav activation. Phorbol ester, 1,2-diacylglycerol, or ceramide treatment of intact T cells, Vav immunoprecipitates, or partially purified Vav generated by in vitro translation or COS-1 cell transfection stimulated the Ras exchange activity of Vav in the absence of detectable tyrosine phosphorylation. GEF activity of gel-purified Vav was similarly stimulated by phorbol myristate acetate (PMA). Stimulation was resistant to PTK and protein kinase C inhibitors but was blocked by calphostin, a PMA and diacylglycerol antagonist. In vitro-translated Vav lacking its cysteine-rich domain, or mutated at a single cysteine residue within this domain (C528A), was not stimulated by PMA but was fully activated by p56lck. This correlated with increased binding of radiolabeled phorbol ester to COS-1 cells expressing wild-type, but not C528A-mutated, Vav. Thus, Vav itself is a PMA-binding and -activated Ras GEF. Recombinant interleukin-1 alpha stimulated Vav via this pathway, suggesting that diglyceride-mediated Vav activation may couple PTK-independent receptors which stimulate production of lipid second messengers to Ras in hematopoietic cells.