Abnormal deletions in the T-cell receptor delta locus of mouse thymocytes

Irradiation promotes V(D)J joining and RAG-dependent neoplastic transformation in SCID T-cell precursors

Defects in the nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) pathway of double-stranded DNA break repair severely impair V(D)J joining and selectively predispose mice to the development of lymphoid neoplasia. This connection was first noted in mice with the severe combined immune deficient (SCID) mutation in the DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK). SCID mice spontaneously develop thymic lymphoma with low incidence and long latency. However, we and others showed that low-dose irradiation of SCID mice dramatically increases the frequency and decreases the latency of thymic lymphomagenesis, but irradiation does not promote the development of other tumors. We have used this model to explore the mechanistic basis by which defects in NHEJ confer selective and profound susceptibility to lymphoid oncogenesis. Here, we show that radiation quantitatively and qualitatively improves V(D)J joining in SCID cells, in the absence of T-cell receptor-mediated cellular selection. Furthermore, we show that the lymphocyte-specific endonuclease encoded by the recombinase-activating genes (RAG-1 and RAG-2) is required for radiation-induced thymic lymphomagenesis in SCID mice. Collectively, these data suggest that irradiation induces a DNA-PK-independent NHEJ pathway that facilitates V(D)J joining, but also promotes oncogenic misjoining of RAG-1/2-induced breaks in SCID T-cell precursors.

Activation of V(D)J recombination induces the formation of interlocus joints and hybrid joints in scid pre-B-cell lines

V(D)J recombination is the mechanism by which antigen receptor genes are assembled. The site-specific cleavage mediated by RAG1 and RAG2 proteins generates two types of double-strand DNA breaks: blunt signal ends and covalently sealed hairpin coding ends. Although these DNA breaks are mainly resolved into coding joints and signal joints, they can participate in a nonstandard joining process, forming hybrid and open/shut joints that link coding ends to signal ends. In addition, the broken DNA molecules excised from different receptor gene loci could potentially be joined to generate interlocus joints. The interlocus recombination process may contribute to the translocation between antigen receptor genes and oncogenes, leading to malignant transformation of lymphocytes. To investigate the underlying mechanisms of these nonstandard recombination events, we took advantage of recombination-inducible cell lines derived from scid homozygous (s/s) and scid heterozygous (s/+) mice by transforming B-cell precursors with a temperature-sensitive Abelson murine leukemia virus mutant (ts-Ab-MLV). We can manipulate the level of recombination cleavage and end resolution by altering the cell culture temperature. By analyzing various recombination products in scid and s/+ ts-Ab-MLV transformants, we report in this study that scid cells make higher levels of interlocus and hybrid joints than their normal counterparts. These joints arise concurrently with the formation of intralocus joints, as well as with the appearance of opened coding ends. The junctions of these joining products exhibit excessive nucleotide deletions, a characteristic of scid coding joints. These data suggest that an inability of scid cells to promptly resolve their recombination ends exposes the ends to a random joining process, which can conceivably lead to chromosomal translocations.

Characterization of excised DNA intermediates associated with V(D)J recombination at the T-cell receptor delta locus

Lymphocyte development requires the assembly of antigen receptor genes through the specialized process of V(D)J recombination. This process is initiated by cleavage at the junction between coding segments (V, D, and J) and the recombination signal sequences that border these segments, resulting in generation of double-strand break intermediates. We have used a two-dimensional gel system to characterize broken molecules arising from V(D)J recombination at the T-cell receptor (TCR) delta locus and have identified linear species excised by Ddelta1-Ddelta2 and V-Ddelta2 rearrangement in thymus DNA. Relatively few (approximately 10) V-Ddelta2-excised linear species were detected in DNA from fetal thymocytes. The sizes of these species corresponded to the estimated distances between Ddelta2 and the V gene segments utilized by gammadelta T cells and indicated that both Ddelta2-proximal and -distal V gene segments are targeted for V-Ddelta2 rearrangement. Similar-sized species were observed in DNA from thymocytes of scid mice in which T-cell development is arrested prior to TCR expression. Since previous studies suggest that the TCR alpha/delta locus encodes more than 100 V gene segments, our results indicate that a few select V gene segments are predominantly targeted for rearrangement to Ddelta2, and this primarily accounts for the restricted Vdelta gene repertoire of gammadelta T cells.

Transient restoration of gene rearrangement at multiple T cell receptor loci in gamma-irradiated scid mice

The developmental arrest of thymocytes from scid mice, deficient in variable, (diversity), and joining, or V(D)J recombination, can be overcome by sublethal gamma-irradiation. Since previous studies focused on restoration of rearrangement of the T cell receptor (TCR) beta locus, productive rearrangement of which is selected for, we sought to examine to what extent locus specificity and cellular selection contributed to the observed effects. We report here that irradiation of newborn scid mice induces normal V-D-J rearrangements of the TCR delta locus, which like TCR beta, is also actively rearranged in CD(4-)CD(8-) (double negative) thymocytes. In contrast, no complete V-J alpha rearrangements were detected. Instead, we detected substantial levels of hairpin-terminated coding ends at the 5' end of the J alpha locus, demonstrating that TCR alpha rearrangements manifest the effects of the scid mutation. Irradiation, therefore, transiently compensates for the effects of the scid mutation in a locus-nonspecific manner in thymocytes, resulting in a burst of normal TCR beta and delta rearrangements. Irradiation also allows the development of cells that can initiate but fail to complete V(D)J recombination events at the TCR alpha locus, which is normally inaccessible in scid thymocytes.

Inversions produced during V(D)J rearrangement at IgH, the immunoglobulin heavy-chain locus

Diversity in immunoglobulin antigen receptors is generated in part by V(D)J recombination. In this process, different combinations of gene elements are joined in various configurations. Products of V(D)J recombination are coding joints, signal joints, and hybrid junctions, which are generated by deletion or inversion. To determine their role in the generation of diversity, we have examined two sorts of recombination products, coding joints and hybrid junctions, that have formed by inversion at the mouse immunoglobulin heavy-chain locus. We developed a PCR assay for quantification and characterization of inverted rearrangements of DH and JH gene elements. In primary cells from adult mice, inverted DJH rearrangements are detectable but they are rare. There were approximately 1,100 to 2,200 inverted DJH coding joints and inverted DJH hybrid junctions in the marrow of one adult mouse femur. On day 16 of gestation, inverted DJH rearrangements are more abundant. There are approximately 20,000 inverted DJH coding joints and inverted DJH hybrid junctions per day 16 fetal liver. In fetal liver cells, the number of inverted DJH rearrangements remains relatively constant from day 14 to day 16 of gestation. Inverted DJH rearrangements to JH4, the most 3' JH element, are more frequently detected than inverted DJH rearrangements to other JH elements. We compare the frequencies of inverted DJH rearrangements to previously determined frequencies of uninverted DJH rearrangements (DJH rearrangements formed by deletion). We suggest that inverted DJH rearrangements are influenced by V(D)J recombination mechanistic constraints and cellular selection.