Interactions of the yeast SF3b splicing factor

Spliceosome assembly and regulation: insights from analysis of highly reduced spliceosomes

Premessenger RNA splicing is catalyzed by the spliceosome, a multimegadalton RNA-protein complex that assembles in a highly regulated process on each intronic substrate. Most studies of splicing and spliceosomes have been carried out in human or S. cerevisiae model systems. There exists, however, a large diversity of spliceosomes, particularly in organisms with reduced genomes, that suggests a means of analyzing the essential elements of spliceosome assembly and regulation. In this review, we characterize changes in spliceosome composition across phyla, describing those that are most frequently observed and highlighting an analysis of the reduced spliceosome of the red alga Cyanidioschyzon merolae We used homology modeling to predict what effect splicing protein loss would have on the spliceosome, based on currently available cryo-EM structures. We observe strongly correlated loss of proteins that function in the same process, for example, in interacting with the U1 snRNP (which is absent in C. merolae), regulation of Brr2, or coupling transcription and splicing. Based on our observations, we predict splicing in C. merolae to be inefficient, inaccurate, and post-transcriptional, consistent with the apparent trend toward its elimination in this lineage. This work highlights the striking flexibility of the splicing pathway and the spliceosome when viewed in the context of eukaryotic diversity.

Structural and functional modularity of the U2 snRNP in pre-mRNA splicing

The U2 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein (snRNP) is an essential component of the spliceosome, the cellular machine responsible for removing introns from precursor mRNAs (pre-mRNAs) in all eukaryotes. U2 is an extraordinarily dynamic splicing factor and the most frequently mutated in cancers. Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) has transformed our structural and functional understanding of the role of U2 in splicing. In this review, we synthesize these and other data with respect to a view of U2 as an assembly of interconnected functional modules. These modules are organized by the U2 small nuclear RNA (snRNA) for roles in spliceosome assembly, intron substrate recognition, and protein scaffolding. We describe new discoveries regarding the structure of U2 components and how the snRNP undergoes numerous conformational and compositional changes during splicing. We specifically highlight large scale movements of U2 modules as the spliceosome creates and rearranges its active site. U2 serves as a compelling example for how cellular machines can exploit the modular organization and structural plasticity of an RNP.

iTRAQ-based proteome profiling of hyposaline responses in zygotes of the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas

Low salinity treatment is proven to be the practical polyploidy inducing method for shellfish with advantages of lower cost, higher operability and reliable food security. However, little is known about the possible molecular mechanism of hypotonic induction. In this study, isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) based proteomic profiling was pursued to investigate the responses of zygotes of the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas to low salinity. A total of 2235 proteins were identified and 87 proteins were considered differentially expressed, of which 14 were up-regulated and 69 were down-regulated. Numerous functional proteins including ADP ribosylation factor 2, DNA repair protein Rad50, splicing factor 3B, tubulin-specific Chaperone D were significantly changed in abundance, and were involved in various biology processes including energy generation, vesicle trafficking, DNA/RNA/protein metabolism and cytoskeleton modification, indicating the prominent modulation of cell division and embryonic development. Parallel reaction monitoring (PRM) analyses were carried out for validation of the expression levels of differentially expressed proteins (DEPs), which indicated high reliability of the proteomic results. Our study not only demonstrated the proteomic alterations in oyster zygotes under low salinity, but also provided, in part, clues to the relatively lower hatching rate and higher mortality of induced larvae. Above all, this study presents a valuable foundation for further studies on mechanisms of hypotonic induction.

SF3b1 mutations associated with myelodysplastic syndromes alter the fidelity of branchsite selection in yeast

RNA and protein components of the spliceosome work together to identify the 5΄ splice site, the 3΄ splice site, and the branchsite (BS) of nascent pre-mRNA. SF3b1 plays a key role in recruiting the U2 snRNP to the BS. Mutations in human SF3b1 have been linked to many diseases such as myelodysplasia (MDS) and cancer. We have used SF3b1 mutations associated with MDS to interrogate the role of the yeast ortholog, Hsh155, in BS selection and splicing. These alleles change how the spliceosome recognizes the BS and alter splicing when nonconsensus nucleotides are present at the −2, −1 and +1 positions relative to the branchpoint adenosine. This indicates that changes in BS usage observed in humans with SF3b1 mutations may result from perturbation of a conserved mechanism of BS recognition. Notably, different HSH155 alleles elicit disparate effects on splicing: some increase the fidelity of BS selection while others decrease fidelity. Our data support a model wherein conformational changes in SF3b1 promote U2 association with the BS independently of the action of the DEAD-box ATPase Prp5. We propose that SF3b1 functions to stabilize weak U2/BS duplexes to drive spliceosome assembly and splicing.

The pre-mRNA retention and splicing complex controls expression of the Mediator subunit Med20

The heterotrimeric pre-mRNA retention and splicing (RES) complex, consisting of Bud13p, Snu17p and Pml1p, promotes splicing and nuclear retention of a subset of intron-containing pre-mRNAs. Yeast cells deleted for individual RES genes show growth defects that are exacerbated at elevated temperatures. Although the growth phenotypes correlate to the splicing defects in the individual mutants, the underlying mechanism is unknown. Here, we show that the temperature sensitive (Ts) growth phenotype of bud13Δ and snu17Δ cells is a consequence of inefficient splicing of MED20 pre-mRNA, which codes for a subunit of the Mediator complex; a co-regulator of RNA polymerase II transcription. The MED20 pre-mRNA splicing defect is less pronounced in pml1Δ cells, explaining why they grow better than the other 2 RES mutants at elevated temperatures. Inactivation of the cytoplasmic nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) pathway in the RES mutants leads to accumulation of MED20 pre-mRNA, indicating that inefficient nuclear retention contributes to the growth defect. Further, the Ts phenotype of bud13Δ and snu17Δ cells is partially suppressed by the inactivation of NMD, showing that the growth defects are augmented by the presence of a functional NMD pathway. Collectively, our results demonstrate an important role of the RES complex in maintaining the Med20p levels.

Global analysis of pre-mRNA subcellular localization following splicing inhibition by spliceostatin A

Spliceostatin A (SSA) is a methyl ketal derivative of FR901464, a potent antitumor compound isolated from a culture broth of Pseudomonas sp no. 2663. These compounds selectively bind to the essential spliceosome component SF3b, a subcomplex of the U2 snRNP, to inhibit pre-mRNA splicing. However, the mechanism of SSA's antitumor activity is unknown. It is noteworthy that SSA causes accumulation of a truncated form of the CDK inhibitor protein p27 translated from CDKN1B pre-mRNA, which is involved in SSA-induced cell-cycle arrest. However, it is still unclear whether pre-mRNAs are uniformly exported from the nucleus following SSA treatment. We performed RNA-seq analysis on nuclear and cytoplasmic fractions of SSA-treated cells. Our statistical analyses showed that intron retention is the major consequence of SSA treatment, and a small number of intron-containing pre-mRNAs leak into the cytoplasm. Using a series of reporter plasmids to investigate the roles of intronic sequences in the pre-mRNA leakage, we showed that the strength of the 5' splice site affects pre-mRNA leakage. Additionally, we found that the level of pre-mRNA leakage is related to transcript length. These results suggest that the strength of the 5' splice site and the length of the transcripts are determinants of the pre-mRNA leakage induced by SF3b inhibitors.

Molecular Architecture of SF3b and Structural Consequences of Its Cancer-Related Mutations

SF3b is a heptameric protein complex of the U2 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein (snRNP) that is essential for pre-mRNA splicing. Mutations in the largest SF3b subunit, SF3B1/SF3b155, are linked to cancer and lead to alternative branch site (BS) selection. Here we report the crystal structure of a human SF3b core complex, revealing how the distinctive conformation of SF3b155's HEAT domain is maintained by multiple contacts with SF3b130, SF3b10, and SF3b14b. Protein-protein crosslinking enabled the localization of the BS-binding proteins p14 and U2AF65 within SF3b155's HEAT-repeat superhelix, which together with SF3b14b forms a composite RNA-binding platform. SF3b155 residues, the mutation of which leads to cancer, contribute to the tertiary structure of the HEAT superhelix and its surface properties in the proximity of p14 and U2AF65. The molecular architecture of SF3b reveals the spatial organization of cancer-related SF3b155 mutations and advances our understanding of their effects on SF3b structure and function.

A protein map of the yeast activated spliceosome as obtained by electron microscopy

We have elucidated the spatial arrangement of proteins and snRNP subunits within the purified spliceosomal B(act) complex from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, using negative-stain immunoelectron microscopy. The B(act) spliceosome exhibits a mushroom-like shape with a main body connected to a foot and a steep and a shallow slope. The U5 core components, including proteins Snu114 and Prp8, are located in the main body and foot, while Brr2 is on the shallow slope. U2 snRNP components and the RNA helicase Prp2 were predominantly located in the upper regions of both slopes. While several proteins of the "nineteen complex" are located on the steep slope, Prp19, Cef1, and the U6 snRNA-binding protein Cwc2 are on the main body. Our results also indicate that the catalytic core RNP of the spliceosome resides in its main body. We thus assign distinct domains of the B(act) complex to its snRNP and protein components, and we provide first structural insights into the remodeling events at the spliceosome during its transformation from the B to the B(act) complex.

Structural and mechanistic insights into human splicing factor SF3b complex derived using an integrated approach guided by the cryo-EM density maps

Pre-mRNA splicing in eukaryotes is performed by the spliceosome, a highly complex macromolecular machine. SF3b is a multi-protein complex which recognizes the branch point adenosine of pre-mRNA as part of a larger U2 snRNP or U11/U12 di-snRNP in the dynamic spliceosome machinery. Although a cryo-EM map is available for human SF3b complex, the structure and relative spatial arrangement of all components in the complex are not yet known. We have recognized folds of domains in various proteins in the assembly and generated comparative models. Using an integrative approach involving structural and other experimental data, guided by the available cryo-EM density map, we deciphered a pseudo-atomic model of the closed form of SF3b which is found to be a "fuzzy complex" with highly flexible components and multiplicity of folds. Further, the model provides structural information for 5 proteins (SF3b10, SF3b155, SF3b145, SF3b130 and SF3b14b) and localization information for 4 proteins (SF3b10, SF3b145, SF3b130 and SF3b14b) in the assembly for the first time. Integration of this model with the available U11/U12 di-snRNP cryo-EM map enabled elucidation of an open form. This now provides new insights on the mechanistic features involved in the transition between closed and open forms pivoted by a hinge region in the SF3b155 protein that also harbors cancer causing mutations. Moreover, the open form guided model of the 5' end of U12 snRNA, which includes the branch point duplex, shows that the architecture of SF3b acts as a scaffold for U12 snRNA: pre-mRNA branch point duplex formation with potential implications for branch point adenosine recognition fidelity.

Protein localisation by electron microscopy reveals the architecture of the yeast spliceosomal B complex

The spliceosome assembles on a pre-mRNA intron by binding of five snRNPs and numerous proteins, leading to the formation of the pre-catalytic B complex. While the general morphology of the B complex is known, the spatial arrangement of proteins and snRNP subunits within it remain to be elucidated. To shed light on the architecture of the yeast B complex, we immuno-labelled selected proteins and located them by negative-stain electron microscopy. The B complex exhibited a triangular shape with main body, head and neck domains. We located the U5 snRNP components Brr2 at the top and Prp8 and Snu114 in the centre of the main body. We found several U2 SF3a (Prp9 and Prp11) and SF3b (Hsh155 and Cus1) proteins in the head domain and two U4/U6 snRNP proteins (Prp3 and Lsm4) in the neck domain that connects the main body with the head. Thus, we could assign distinct domains of the B complex to the respective snRNPs and provide the first detailed picture of the subunit architecture and protein arrangements of the B complex.

Retention and splicing complex (RES) - the importance of cooperativity

One of the great challenges to structural biologists lies in explaining the complexities of the spliceosome – a ribosome-sized molecular machine that is assembled in a step-wise manner and is responsible for pre-mRNA splicing. The spliceosome is both fascinating and difficult to work with, because of its dynamic nature. At each discrete step of splicing tens of proteins come and go orchestrating the functional transition through massive structural rearrangements. The retention and splicing complex (RES) is an important splicing factor interacting with pre-mRNA at the onset of the first transesterification reaction. RES is a specific splicing factor for a number of genes and is important for controlling pre-mRNA retention in the nucleus. RES is a 71 kDa heterotrimer composed of the 3 proteins Pml1p, Bud13p and Snu17p. We solved the 3-dimensional structure of the core of the RES complex as well as the 2 dimers, Snu17p-Bud13p and Snu17p-Pml1p. Further biophysical analysis revealed an astounding cooperativity that governs the assembly of this trimeric complex as well as its interaction with pre-mRNA. The more than 100-fold cooperativity originates from the progressive rigidification of Snu17p upon coupled binding-and-folding of protein regions, which are disordered in the unbound state. Our work highlights the role of cooperativity in the spliceosome and poses new questions about the structure and assembly of the spliceosome.

Dynamic Contacts of U2, RES, Cwc25, Prp8 and Prp45 Proteins with the Pre-mRNA Branch-Site and 3' Splice Site during Catalytic Activation and Step 1 Catalysis in Yeast Spliceosomes

Little is known about contacts in the spliceosome between proteins and intron nucleotides surrounding the pre-mRNA branch-site and their dynamics during splicing. We investigated protein-pre-mRNA interactions by UV-induced crosslinking of purified yeast B(act) spliceosomes formed on site-specifically labeled pre-mRNA, and analyzed their changes after conversion to catalytically-activated B* and step 1 C complexes, using a purified splicing system. Contacts between nucleotides upstream and downstream of the branch-site and the U2 SF3a/b proteins Prp9, Prp11, Hsh49, Cus1 and Hsh155 were detected, demonstrating that these interactions are evolutionarily conserved. The RES proteins Pml1 and Bud13 were shown to contact the intron downstream of the branch-site. A comparison of the B(act) crosslinking pattern versus that of B* and C complexes revealed that U2 and RES protein interactions with the intron are dynamic. Upon step 1 catalysis, Cwc25 contacts with the branch-site region, and enhanced crosslinks of Prp8 and Prp45 with nucleotides surrounding the branch-site were observed. Cwc25's step 1 promoting activity was not dependent on its interaction with pre-mRNA, indicating it acts via protein-protein interactions. These studies provide important insights into the spliceosome's protein-pre-mRNA network and reveal novel RNP remodeling events during the catalytic activation of the spliceosome and step 1 of splicing.

Structures of intermediates during RES complex assembly

The action of the spliceosome depends on the stepwise cooperative assembly and disassembly of its components. Very strong cooperativity was observed for the RES (Retention and Splicing) hetero-trimeric complex where the affinity from binary to tertiary interactions changes more than 100-fold and affects RNA binding. The RES complex is involved in splicing regulation and retention of not properly spliced pre-mRNA with its three components—Snu17p, Pml1p and Bud13p—giving rise to the two possible intermediate dimeric complexes Pml1p-Snu17p and Bud13p-Snu17p. Here we determined the three-dimensional structure and dynamics of the Pml1p-Snu17p and Bud13p-Snu17p dimers using liquid state NMR. We demonstrate that localized as well as global changes occur along the RES trimer assembly pathway. The stepwise rigidification of the Snu17p structure following the binding of Pml1p and Bud13p provides a basis for the strong cooperative nature of RES complex assembly.

Dramatically reduced spliceosome in Cyanidioschyzon merolae

The human spliceosome is a large ribonucleoprotein complex that catalyzes pre-mRNA splicing. It consists of five snRNAs and more than 200 proteins. Because of this complexity, much work has focused on the Saccharomyces cerevisiae spliceosome, viewed as a highly simplified system with fewer than half as many splicing factors as humans. Nevertheless, it has been difficult to ascribe a mechanistic function to individual splicing factors or even to discern which are critical for catalyzing the splicing reaction. We have identified and characterized the splicing machinery from the red alga Cyanidioschyzon merolae, which has been reported to harbor only 26 intron-containing genes. The U2, U4, U5, and U6 snRNAs contain expected conserved sequences and have the ability to adopt secondary structures and form intermolecular base-pairing interactions, as in other organisms. C. merolae has a highly reduced set of 43 identifiable core splicing proteins, compared with ∼90 in budding yeast and ∼140 in humans. Strikingly, we have been unable to find a U1 snRNA candidate or any predicted U1-associated proteins, suggesting that splicing in C. merolae may occur without the U1 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particle. In addition, based on mapping the identified proteins onto the known splicing cycle, we propose that there is far less compositional variability during splicing in C. merolae than in other organisms. The observed reduction in splicing factors is consistent with the elimination of spliceosomal components that play a peripheral or modulatory role in splicing, presumably retaining those with a more central role in organization and catalysis.

Cooperative structure of the heterotrimeric pre-mRNA retention and splicing complex

The precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA) retention and splicing (RES) complex is a spliceosomal complex that is present in yeast and humans and is important for RNA splicing and retention of unspliced pre-mRNA. Here, we present the solution NMR structure of the RES core complex from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Complex formation leads to an intricate folding of three components-Snu17p, Bud13p and Pml1p-that stabilizes the RNA-recognition motif (RRM) fold of Snu17p and increases binding affinity in tertiary interactions between the components by more than 100-fold compared to that in binary interactions. RES interacts with pre-mRNA within the spliceosome, and through the assembly of the RES core complex RNA binding efficiency is increased. The three-dimensional structure of the RES core complex highlights the importance of cooperative folding and binding in the functional organization of the spliceosome.

Crystal structure of Prp5p reveals interdomain interactions that impact spliceosome assembly

The DEAD-box adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) Prp5p facilitates U2 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particle (snRNP) binding to the intron branch site region during spliceosome assembly. We present crystal structures of S. cerevisiae Prp5p alone and in complex with ADP at 2.12 Å and 1.95 Å resolution. The three-dimensional packing of Prp5p subdomains differs strikingly from that so far observed in other DEAD-box proteins: two RecA-like subdomains adopt an "open state" conformation stabilized by extensive interactions involving sequences that flank the two subdomains. This conformation is distinct from that required for ATP hydrolysis. Consistent with this, Prp5p mutations that destabilize interdomain interactions exhibited increased ATPase activity in vitro and inhibited splicing of suboptimal branch site substrates in vivo, whereas restoration of interdomain interactions reversed these effects. We conclude that the Prp5p open state conformation is biologically relevant and that disruption of the interdomain interaction facilitates a large-scale conformational change of Prp5p during U2 snRNP-branch site recognition.

The pre-mRNA retention and splicing complex controls tRNA maturation by promoting TAN1 expression

The conserved pre-mRNA retention and splicing (RES) complex, which in yeast consists of Bud13p, Snu17p and Pml1p, is thought to promote nuclear retention of unspliced pre-mRNAs and enhance splicing of a subset of transcripts. Here, we find that the absence of Bud13p or Snu17p causes greatly reduced levels of the modified nucleoside N⁴-acetylcytidine (ac⁴C) in tRNA and that a lack of Pml1p reduces ac⁴C levels at elevated temperatures. The ac⁴C nucleoside is normally found at position 12 in the tRNA species specific for serine and leucine. We show that the tRNA modification defect in RES-deficient cells is attributable to inefficient splicing of TAN1 pre-mRNA and the effects of reduced Tan1p levels on formation of ac⁴C. Analyses of cis-acting elements in TAN1 pre-mRNA showed that the intron sequence between the 5′ splice site and branchpoint is necessary and sufficient to mediate RES dependency. We also show that in RES-deficient cells, the TAN1 pre-mRNA is targeted for degradation by the cytoplasmic nonsense-mediated mRNA decay pathway, indicating that poor nuclear retention may contribute to the tRNA modification defect. Our results demonstrate that TAN1 pre-mRNA processing has an unprecedented requirement for RES factors and that the complex controls the formation of ac⁴C in tRNA.

Apparent defect in yeast bud-site selection due to a specific failure to splice the pre-mRNA of a regulator of cell-type-specific transcription

The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae normally selects bud sites (and hence axes of cell polarization) in one of two distinct patterns, the axial pattern of haploid cells and the bipolar pattern of diploid cells. Although many of the proteins involved in bud-site selection are known, it is likely that others remain to be identified. Confirming a previous report (Ni and Snyder, 2001, Mol. Biol. Cell 12, 2147-2170), we found that diploids homozygous for deletions of IST3/SNU17 or BUD13 do not show normal bipolar budding. However, these abnormalities do not reflect defects in the apparatus of bipolar budding. Instead, the absence of Ist3 or Bud13 results in a specific defect in the splicing of the MATa1 pre-mRNA, which encodes a repressor that normally blocks expression of haploid-specific genes in diploid cells. When Mata1 protein is lacking, Axl1, a haploid-specific protein critical for the choice between axial and bipolar budding, is expressed ectopically in diploid cells and disrupts bipolar budding. The involvement of Ist3 and Bud13 in pre-mRNA splicing is by now well known, but the degree of specificity shown here for MATa1 pre-mRNA, which has no obvious basis in the pre-mRNA structure, is rather surprising in view of current models for the functions of these proteins. Moreover, we found that deletion of PML1, whose product is thought to function together with Ist3 and Bud13 in a three-protein retention-and-splicing (RES) complex, had no detectable effect on the splicing in vivo of either MATa1 or four other pre-mRNAs.

Context dependent splicing functions of Bud31/Ycr063w define its role in budding and cell cycle progression

The yeast Bud31 protein, a Prp19 complex (NTC) member, aids spliceosome assembly and thus promotes efficient pre-mRNA splicing. The bud31 null cells show mild budding abnormalities at optimal growth temperatures and, at higher temperatures, have growth defects with aberrant budding. Here we have assessed cell cycle transitions which require Bud31. We find Bud31 facilitates passage through G1-S regulatory point (Start) but is not needed for G2-M transition or for exit from mitosis. To co-relate Bud31 functions in cell division with splicing, we studied the splicing status of transcripts that encode proteins involved in budding. We find Bud31 promotes efficient splicing of only some of these pre-mRNAs, for example, ARP2 and SRC1. Wild type cells have a long and a short isoform of SRC1 mRNA and protein, out of which the shorter mRNA splice variant is predominant. bud31Δ cells show inefficient SRC1 splicing and entirely lack the shorter SRC1 spliced mRNA isoform. Yeast PRP17, another NTC sub-complex member, is also required for G1-S and G2-M cell cycle transitions. We examined genetic interactions between BUD31 and PRP17. While both factors were needed for efficient cell cycle dependent gene expression, our data indicate that distinct pre-mRNAs depend on each of these non-essential splicing factors.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae NineTeen complex (NTC)-associated factor Bud31/Ycr063w assembles on precatalytic spliceosomes and improves first and second step pre-mRNA splicing efficiency

Pre-mRNA splicing occurs in spliceosomes whose assembly and activation are critical for splice site selection and catalysis. The highly conserved NineTeen complex protein complex stabilizes various snRNA and protein interactions early in the spliceosome assembly pathway. Among several NineTeen complex-associated proteins is the nonessential protein Bud31/Ycr063w, which is also a component of the Cef1p subcomplex. A role for Bud31 in pre-mRNA splicing is implicated by virtue of its association with splicing factors, but its specific functions and spliceosome interactions are uncharacterized. Here, using in vitro splicing assays with extracts from a strain lacking Bud31, we illustrate its role in efficient progression to the first catalytic step and its requirement for the second catalytic step in reactions at higher temperatures. Immunoprecipitation of functional epitope-tagged Bud31 from in vitro reactions showed that its earliest association is with precatalytic B complex and that the interaction continues in catalytically active complexes with stably bound U2, U5, and U6 small nuclear ribonucleoproteins. In complementary experiments, wherein precatalytic spliceosomes are selected from splicing reactions, we detect the occurrence of Bud31. Cross-linking of proteins to pre-mRNAs with a site-specific 4-thio uridine residue at the -3 position of exon 1 was tested in reactions with WT and bud31 null extracts. The data suggest an altered interaction between a ∼25-kDa protein and this exonic residue of pre-mRNAs in the arrested bud31 null spliceosomes. These results demonstrate the early spliceosomal association of Bud31 and provide plausible functions for this factor in stabilizing protein interactions with the pre-mRNA.

A U1-U2 snRNP interaction network during intron definition

The assembly of prespliceosomes is responsible for selection of intron sites for splicing. U1 and U2 snRNPs recognize 5' splice sites and branch sites, respectively; although there is information regarding the composition of these complexes, little is known about interaction among the components or between the two snRNPs. Here we describe the protein network of interactions linking U1 and U2 snRNPs with the ATPase Prp5, important for branch site recognition and fidelity during the first steps of the reaction, using fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. The U1 snRNP core protein U1A binds to a novel SR-like protein, Rsd1, which has homologs implicated in transcription. Rsd1 also contacts S. pombe Prp5 (SpPrp5), mediated by SR-like domains in both proteins. SpPrp5 then contacts U2 snRNP through SF3b, mediated by a conserved DPLD motif in Prp5. We show that mutations in this motif have consequences not only in vitro (defects in prespliceosome formation) but also in vivo, yielding intron retention and exon skipping defects in fission yeast and altered intron recognition in budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, indicating that the U1-U2 network provides critical, evolutionarily conserved contacts during intron definition.

A genetic interaction map of RNA-processing factors reveals links between Sem1/Dss1-containing complexes and mRNA export and splicing

We used a quantitative, high-density genetic interaction map, or E-MAP (Epistatic MiniArray Profile), to interrogate the relationships within and between RNA-processing pathways. Due to their complexity and the essential roles of many of the components, these pathways have been difficult to functionally dissect. Here, we report the results for 107,155 individual interactions involving 552 mutations, 166 of which are hypomorphic alleles of essential genes. Our data enabled the discovery of links between components of the mRNA export and splicing machineries and Sem1/Dss1, a component of the 19S proteasome. In particular, we demonstrate that Sem1 has a proteasome-independent role in mRNA export as a functional component of the Sac3-Thp1 complex. Sem1 also interacts with Csn12, a component of the COP9 signalosome. Finally, we show that Csn12 plays a role in pre-mRNA splicing, which is independent of other signalosome components. Thus, Sem1 is involved in three separate and functionally distinct complexes.

The biflavonoid isoginkgetin is a general inhibitor of Pre-mRNA splicing

Membrane-permeable compounds that reversibly inhibit a particular step in gene expression are highly useful tools for cell biological and biochemical/structural studies. In comparison with other gene expression steps where multiple small molecule effectors are available, very few compounds have been described that act as general inhibitors of pre-mRNA splicing. Here we report construction and validation of a set of mammalian cell lines suitable for the identification of small molecule inhibitors of pre-mRNA splicing. Using these cell lines, we identified the natural product isoginkgetin as a general inhibitor of both the major and minor spliceosomes. Isoginkgetin inhibits splicing both in vivo and in vitro at similar micromolar concentrations. It appears to do so by preventing stable recruitment of the U4/U5/U6 tri-small nuclear ribonucleoprotein, resulting in accumulation of the prespliceosomal A complex. Like two other recently reported general pre-mRNA splicing inhibitors, isoginkgetin has been previously described as an anti-tumor agent. Our results suggest that splicing inhibition is the mechanistic basis of the anti-tumor activity of isoginkgetin. Thus, pre-mRNA splicing inhibitors may represent a novel avenue for development of new anti-cancer agents.

An unusual RNA recognition motif acts as a scaffold for multiple proteins in the pre-mRNA retention and splicing complex

The yeast pre-mRNA retention and splicing complex counteracts the escape of unspliced pre-mRNAs from the nucleus and activates splicing of a subset of Mer1p-dependent genes. A homologous complex is present in activated human spliceosomes. In many components of the spliceosome, RNA recognition motifs (RRMs) serve as versatile protein-RNA or protein-protein interaction platforms. Here, we show that in the retention and splicing complex, an atypical RRM of the Snu17p (small nuclear ribonucleoprotein-associated protein 17) subunit acts as a scaffold that organizes the other two constituents, Bud13p (bud site selection 13) and Pml1p (pre-mRNA leakage 1). GST pull-down experiments and size exclusion chromatography revealed that Snu17p constitutes the central platform of the complex, whereas Bud13p and Pml1p do not interact with each other. Fluorimetric structure probing showed the entire Bud13p and the N-terminal third of Pml1p to be natively disordered in isolation. Mutational analysis and tryptophan fluorescence confirmed that a conserved tryptophan-containing motif in the C terminus of Bud13p binds to the core RRM of Snu17p, whereas a different interaction surface encompassing a C-terminal extension of the Snu17p RRM is required to bind an N-terminal peptide of Pml1p. Isothermal titration calorimetry revealed 1:1 interaction stoichiometries, large negative binding entropies, and dissociation constants in the low nanomolar and micromolar ranges for the Snu17p-Bud13p and the Snu17p-Pml1p interactions, respectively. Our results demonstrate that the noncanonical Snu17p RRM concomitantly binds multiple ligand proteins via short, intrinsically unstructured peptide epitopes and thereby acts as a platform that displays functional modules of the ligands, such as a forkhead-associated domain of Pml1p and a conserved polylysine motif of Bud13p.

Solution structure of the U2 snRNP protein Rds3p reveals a knotted zinc-finger motif

Rds3p, a component of the U2 snRNP subcomplex SF3b, is essential for pre-mRNA splicing and is extremely well conserved in all eukaryotic species. We report here the solution structure of Rds3p, which reveals an unusual knotted fold unrelated to previously known knotted proteins. Rds3p has a triangular shape with a GATA-like zinc finger at each vertex. Pairs of cysteines contributing to each finger are arranged nonsequentially in a permuted arrangement reminiscent of domain-swapping but which here involves segments of subdomains within a single chain. We suggest that the structure arose through a process of segment swapping after gene duplication. The fingers are connected through beta-strands and loops, forming an overall topology strongly resembling a "triquetra knot." The conservation and surface properties of Rds3p suggest that it functions as a platform for protein assembly within the multiprotein SF3b complex of U2 snRNP. The recombinant protein used for structure determination is biologically active, as it restores splicing activity in a yeast splicing extract depleted of native Rds3p.

A BBP-Mud2p heterodimer mediates branchpoint recognition and influences splicing substrate abundance in budding yeast

The 3′ end of mammalian introns is marked by the branchpoint binding protein, SF1, and the U2AF65-U2AF35 heterodimer bound at an adjacent sequence. Baker's yeast has equivalent proteins, branchpoint binding protein (BBP) (SF1) and Mud2p (U2AF65), but lacks an obvious U2AF35 homolog, leaving open the question of whether another protein substitutes during spliceosome assembly. Gel filtration, affinity selection and mass spectrometry were used to show that rather than a U2AF65/U2AF35-like heterodimer, Mud2p forms a complex with BBP without a third (U2AF35-like) factor. Using mutants of MUD2 and BBP, we show that the BBP–Mud2p complex bridges partner-specific Prp39p, Mer1p, Clf1p and Smy2p two-hybrid interactions. In addition to inhibiting Mud2p association, the bbpΔ56 mutation impairs splicing, enhances pre-mRNA release from the nucleus, and similar to a mud2::KAN knockout, suppresses a lethal sub2::KAN mutation. Unexpectedly, rather than exacerbating bbpΔ56, the mud2::KAN mutation partially suppresses a pre-mRNA accumulation defect observed with bbpΔ56. We propose that a BBP–Mud2p heterodimer binds as a unit to the branchpoint in vivo and serves as a target for the Sub2p-DExD/H-box ATPase and for other splicing factors during spliceosome assembly. In addition, our results suggest the possibility that the Mud2p may enhance the turnover of pre-mRNA with impaired BBP-branchpoint association.

Single-gene deletions that restore mating competence to diploid yeast

Using the Saccharomyces cerevisiae MATa/MATalpha ORF deletion collection, homozygous deletion strains were identified that undergo mating with MATa or MATalpha haploids. Seven homozygous deletions were identified that confer enhanced mating. Three of these, lacking CTF8, CTF18, and DCC1, mate at a low frequency with either MATa or MATalpha haploids. The products of these genes form a complex involved in sister chromatid cohesion. Each of these strains also exhibits increased chromosome loss rates, and mating likely occurs due to loss of one copy of chromosome III, which bears the MAT locus. Three other homozygous diploid deletion strains, ylr193cDelta/ylr193cDelta, yor305wDelta/yor305wDelta, and ypr170cDelta/ypr170cDelta, mate at very low frequencies with haploids of either or both mating types. However, an ist3Delta/ist3Delta strain mates only with MATa haploids. It is shown that IST3, previously linked to splicing, is required for efficient processing of the MATa1 message, particularly the first intron. As a result, the ist3Delta/ist3Delta strain expresses unbalanced ratios of Matalpha to Mata proteins and therefore mates with MATa haploids. Accordingly, mating in this diploid can be repressed by introduction of a MATa1 cDNA. In summary, this study underscores and elaborates upon predicted pathways by which mutations restore mating function to yeast diploids and identifies new mutants warranting further study.

Spliceostatin A targets SF3b and inhibits both splicing and nuclear retention of pre-mRNA

The removal of intervening sequences from transcripts is catalyzed by the spliceosome, a multicomponent complex that assembles on the newly synthesized pre-mRNA. Pre-mRNA translation in the cytoplasm leads to the generation of aberrant proteins that are potentially harmful. Therefore, tight control to prevent undesired pre-mRNA export from the nucleus and its subsequent translation is an essential requirement for reliable gene expression. Here, we show that the natural product FR901464 (1) and its methylated derivative, spliceostatin A (2), inhibit in vitro splicing and promote pre-mRNA accumulation by binding to SF3b, a subcomplex of the U2 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein in the spliceosome. Importantly, treatment of cells with these compounds resulted in leakage of pre-mRNA to the cytoplasm, where it was translated. Knockdown of SF3b by small interfering RNA induced phenotypes similar to those seen with spliceostatin A treatment. Thus, the inhibition of pre-mRNA splicing during early steps involving SF3b allows unspliced mRNA leakage and translation.

Inhibition of a spliceosome turnover pathway suppresses splicing defects

Defects in assembly are suggested to signal the dissociation of faulty splicing complexes. A yeast genetic screen was performed to identify components of the putative discard pathway. Weak mutant alleles of SPP382 (also called NTR1) were found to suppress defects in two proteins required for spliceosome activation, Prp38p and Prp8p. Spp382p is shown necessary for cellular splicing, with premRNA and, for some alleles, excised intron, accumulating after inactivation. Like spp382-1, a mutant allele of AAR2 was identified in this suppressor screen. Like Spp382p, Aar2p has a reported role in spliceosome recycling and is found with Spp382p in a complex recovered with a mutant version of the spliceosomal core protein Prp8p. Possible insight into to the spp382 suppressor phenotype is provided by the observation that defective splicing complexes lacking the 5' exon cleavage intermediate are recovered by a tandem affinity purification-tagged Spp382 derivative. Stringent proteomic and two-hybrid analyses show that Spp382p also interacts with Cwc23p, a DNA J-like protein present in the spliceosome and copurified with the Prp43p DExD/H-box ATPase. Spp382p binds Prp43p and Prp43p requires Spp382p for intron release from the spliceosome. Consistent with a related function in the removal of defective complexes, three prp43 mutants are also shown to suppress splicing defects, with efficiencies inversely proportionate to the measured ATPase activities. These and related genetic data support the existence of a Spp382p-dependent turnover pathway acting on defective spliceosomes.

A subset of Mer1p-dependent introns requires Bud13p for splicing activation and nuclear retention

In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Mer1p is expressed only during meiosis, and its expression is linked to the splicing of at least three mRNAs: MER2, MER3, and AMA1. Previous evidence suggests that Mer1p activates splicing by directly recruiting snRNPs or stabilizing intermediate splicing complexes formed on pre-mRNA that contains an intronic Mer1p enhancer element. However, some splicing factors, especially accessory/non-snRNP factors, have critical roles in retaining unspliced pre-mRNAs in the nucleus. We tested if Mer1p may indirectly regulate splicing by preventing the export of pre-mRNAs to the cytoplasm and also demonstrated that a second subunit of the Retention and Splicing (RES) complex, Bud13p, has transcript-specific effects on Mer1p-activated splicing. The results indicated that Mer1p can retain unspliced pre-mRNA in the nucleus; however, nuclear retention could not be uncoupled from splicing activation. In the absence of Mer1p, the AMA1 pre-mRNA is exported to the cytoplasm, translated, but not subjected to nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) despite a premature stop codon in the intron. These data imply that Mer1p can retain pre-mRNAs in the nucleus only by facilitating their interaction with the spliceosome and that two subunits of the RES complex modulate Mer1p function on two of the three Mer1p-dependent introns. The results also support models for cytoplasmic degradation of unspliced pre-mRNAs that fail to assemble into spliceosomes in yeast.