Molecular Basis for Strain Variation in the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Adhesin Flo11p

Variation in pH gradients and FLO11 expression in mat biofilms from environmental isolates of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Saccharomyces cerevisiae produces a multicellular phenotype, known as a mat, on a semi-solid medium. This biofilm phenotype was first described in the lab strain Σ1278b and has been analyzed mostly in this same background. Yeast cells form a mat by spreading across the medium and adhering to each other and the surface, in part through the variegated expression of the cell adhesion, FLO11. This process creates a characteristic floral pattern and generates pH and glucose gradients outward from the center of the mat. Mats are encapsulated in a liquid which may aid in surface spreading and diffusion. Here, we examine thirteen environmental isolates that vary visually in the phenotype. We predicted that mat properties were universal and increased morphological complexity would be associated with more extreme trait values. Our results showed that pH varied significantly among strains, but was not correlated to mat complexity. Only two isolates generated significant liquid boundaries and neither produced visually complex mats. In five isolates, we tracked the initiation of FLO11 using green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of the endogenous promoter. Strains varied in when and how much GFP was detected, with increased signal associated with increased morphological complexity. Generally, the signal was strongest in the center of the mat and absent at the expanding edge. Our results show that traits discovered in one background vary and exist independently of mat complexity in natural isolates. The environment may favor different sets of traits, which could have implications for how this yeast adapts to its many ecological niches.

Gene by Environment Interactions reveal new regulatory aspects of signaling network plasticity

Phenotypes can change during exposure to different environments through the regulation of signaling pathways that operate in integrated networks. How signaling networks produce different phenotypes in different settings is not fully understood. Here, Gene by Environment Interactions (GEIs) were used to explore the regulatory network that controls filamentous/invasive growth in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. GEI analysis revealed that the regulation of invasive growth is decentralized and varies extensively across environments. Different regulatory pathways were critical or dispensable depending on the environment, microenvironment, or time point tested, and the pathway that made the strongest contribution changed depending on the environment. Some regulators even showed conditional role reversals. Ranking pathways' roles across environments revealed an under-appreciated pathway (OPI1) as the single strongest regulator among the major pathways tested (RAS, RIM101, and MAPK). One mechanism that may explain the high degree of regulatory plasticity observed was conditional pathway interactions, such as conditional redundancy and conditional cross-pathway regulation. Another mechanism was that different pathways conditionally and differentially regulated gene expression, such as target genes that control separate cell adhesion mechanisms (FLO11 and SFG1). An exception to decentralized regulation of invasive growth was that morphogenetic changes (cell elongation and budding pattern) were primarily regulated by one pathway (MAPK). GEI analysis also uncovered a round-cell invasion phenotype. Our work suggests that GEI analysis is a simple and powerful approach to define the regulatory basis of complex phenotypes and may be applicable to many systems.

FLO11, a Developmental Gene Conferring Impressive Adaptive Plasticity to the Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has a remarkable ability to adapt its lifestyle to fluctuating or hostile environmental conditions. This adaptation most often involves morphological changes such as pseudofilaments, biofilm formation, or cell aggregation in the form of flocs. A prerequisite for these phenotypic changes is the ability to self-adhere and to adhere to abiotic surfaces. This ability is conferred by specialized surface proteins called flocculins, which are encoded by the FLO genes family in this yeast species. This mini-review focuses on the flocculin encoded by FLO11, which differs significantly from other flocculins in domain sequence and mode of genetic and epigenetic regulation, giving it an impressive plasticity that enables yeast cells to swiftly adapt to hostile environments or into new ecological niches. Furthermore, the common features of Flo11p with those of adhesins from pathogenic yeasts make FLO11 a good model to study the molecular mechanism underlying cell adhesion and biofilm formation, which are part of the initial step leading to fungal infections.

The Flo Adhesin Family

The first step in the infection of fungal pathogens in humans is the adhesion of the pathogen to host tissue cells or abiotic surfaces such as catheters and implants. One of the main players involved in this are the expressed cell wall adhesins. Here, we review the Flo adhesin family and their involvement in the adhesion of these yeasts during human infections. Firstly, we redefined the Flo adhesin family based on the domain architectures that are present in the Flo adhesins and their functions, and set up a new classification of Flo adhesins. Next, the structure, function, and adhesion mechanisms of the Flo adhesins whose structure has been solved are discussed in detail. Finally, we identified from Pfam database datamining yeasts that could express Flo adhesins and are encountered in human infections and their adhesin architectures. These yeasts are discussed in relation to their adhesion characteristics and involvement in infections.

The dual role of amyloid-β-sheet sequences in the cell surface properties of FLO11-encoded flocculins in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Fungal adhesins (Als) or flocculins are family of cell surface proteins that mediate adhesion to diverse biotic and abiotic surfaces. A striking characteristic of Als proteins originally identified in the pathogenic Candida albicans is to form functional amyloids that mediate cis-interaction leading to the formation of adhesin nanodomains and trans-interaction between amyloid sequences of opposing cells. In this report, we show that flocculins encoded by FLO11 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae behave like adhesins in C. albicans. To do so, we show that the formation of nanodomains under an external physical force requires a threshold number of amyloid-forming sequences in the Flo11 protein. Then, using a genome editing approach, we constructed strains expressing variants of the Flo11 protein under the endogenous FLO11 promoter, leading to the demonstration that the loss of amyloid-forming sequences strongly reduces cell-cell interaction but has no effect on either plastic adherence or invasive growth in agar, both phenotypes being dependent on the N- and C-terminal ends of Flo11p. Finally, we show that the location of Flo11 is not altered either by the absence of amyloid-forming sequences or by the removal of the N- or C-terminus of the protein.

The Complex Genetic Basis and Multilayered Regulatory Control of Yeast Pseudohyphal Growth

Eukaryotic cells are exquisitely responsive to external and internal cues, achieving precise control of seemingly diverse growth processes through a complex interplay of regulatory mechanisms. The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae provides a fascinating model of cell growth in its stress-responsive transition from planktonic single cells to a filamentous pseudohyphal growth form. During pseudohyphal growth, yeast cells undergo changes in morphology, polarity, and adhesion to form extended and invasive multicellular filaments. This pseudohyphal transition has been studied extensively as a model of conserved signaling pathways regulating cell growth and for its relevance in understanding the pathogenicity of the related opportunistic fungus Candida albicans, wherein filamentous growth is required for virulence. This review highlights the broad gene set enabling yeast pseudohyphal growth, signaling pathways that regulate this process, the role and regulation of proteins conferring cell adhesion, and interesting regulatory mechanisms enabling the pseudohyphal transition. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Genetics, Volume 55 is November 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

New Aspects of Invasive Growth Regulation Identified by Functional Profiling of MAPK Pathway Targets in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

MAPK pathways are drivers of morphogenesis and stress responses in eukaryotes. A major function of MAPK pathways is the transcriptional induction of target genes, which produce proteins that collectively generate a cellular response. One approach to comprehensively understand how MAPK pathways regulate cellular responses is to characterize the individual functions of their transcriptional targets. Here, by examining uncharacterized targets of the MAPK pathway that positively regulates filamentous growth in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (fMAPK pathway), we identified a new role for the pathway in negatively regulating invasive growth. Specifically, four targets were identified that had an inhibitory role in invasive growth: RPI1, RGD2, TIP1, and NFG1/YLR042cNFG1 was a highly induced unknown open reading frame that negatively regulated the filamentous growth MAPK pathway. We also identified SFG1, which encodes a transcription factor, as a target of the fMAPK pathway. Sfg1p promoted cell adhesion independently from the fMAPK pathway target and major cell adhesion flocculin Flo11p, by repressing genes encoding presumptive cell-wall-degrading enzymes. Sfg1p also contributed to FLO11 expression. Sfg1p and Flo11p regulated different aspects of cell adhesion, and their roles varied based on the environment. Sfg1p also induced an elongated cell morphology, presumably through a cell-cycle delay. Thus, the fMAPK pathway coordinates positive and negative regulatory proteins to fine-tune filamentous growth resulting in a nuanced response. Functional analysis of other pathways' targets may lead to a more comprehensive understanding of how signaling cascades generate biological responses.

Kin discrimination in social yeast is mediated by cell surface receptors of the Flo11 adhesin family

Microorganisms have evolved specific cell surface molecules that enable discrimination between cells from the same and from a different kind. Here, we investigate the role of Flo11-type cell surface adhesins from social yeasts in kin discrimination. We measure the adhesion forces mediated by Flo11A-type domains using single-cell force spectroscopy, quantify Flo11A-based cell aggregation in populations and determine the Flo11A-dependent segregation of competing yeast strains in biofilms. We find that Flo11A domains from diverse yeast species confer remarkably strong adhesion forces by establishing homotypic interactions between single cells, leading to efficient cell aggregation and biofilm formation in homogenous populations. Heterotypic interactions between Flo11A domains from different yeast species or Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains confer weak adhesive forces and lead to efficient strain segregation in heterogenous populations, indicating that in social yeasts Flo11A-mediated cell adhesion is a major mechanism for kin discrimination at species and sub-species levels. These findings, together with our structure and mutation analysis of selected Flo11A domains, provide a rationale of how cell surface receptors have evolved in microorganisms to mediate kin discrimination.

Identification of flocculant wine yeast strains with improved filtration-related phenotypes through application of high-throughput sedimentation rate assays

In most yeast-driven biotechnological applications, biomass is separated from the aqueous phase after fermentation or production has finished. During winemaking, yeasts are removed after fermentation by racking, filtration, or centrifugation, which add costs to the overall process and may reduce product yield. Theoretically, clarification and filtration can be aided through use of yeast strains that form flocs due to cell-cell binding, a process known as flocculation. However, because early flocculation can cause stuck/sluggish fermentations, this phenotype is not common amongst commercially available wine yeasts. In this study we sought to identify wine strains that exhibit late-fermentation flocculant behaviour using two complementary approaches; a high-throughput sedimentation rate assay of individual strains and a competitive sedimentation assay using a barcoded yeast collection. Amongst 103 wine strains, several exhibited strong sedimentation at the end of the wine fermentation process under various environmental conditions. Two of these strains, AWRI1688 and AWRI1759, were further characterised during red winemaking trials. Shiraz wines produced with both strains displayed improved filtration-related properties. AWRI1759 produced wines with greater filterability, whereas AWRI1688 enabled the recovery of larger wine volumes after racking. Thus, this study demonstrates the effective use of sedimentation screening assays to identify wine yeasts with practical winemaking applications.

Variation at an adhesin locus suggests sociality in natural populations of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Microbes engage in numerous social behaviours that are critical for survival and reproduction, and that require individuals to act as a collective. Various mechanisms ensure that collectives are composed of related, cooperating cells, thus allowing for the evolution and stability of these traits, and for selection to favour traits beneficial to the collective. Since microbes are difficult to observe directly, sociality in natural populations can instead be investigated using evolutionary genetic signatures, as social loci can be evolutionary hotspots. The budding yeast has been studied for over a century, yet little is known about its social behaviour in nature. Flo11 is a highly regulated cell adhesin required for most laboratory social phenotypes; studies suggest it may function in cell recognition and its heterogeneous expression may be adaptive for collectives such as biofilms. We investigated this locus and found positive selection in the areas implicated in cell-cell interaction, suggesting selection for kin discrimination. We also found balancing selection at an upstream activation site, suggesting selection on the level of variegated gene expression. Our results suggest this model yeast is surprisingly social in natural environments and is probably engaging in various forms of sociality. By using genomic data, this research provides a glimpse of otherwise unobservable interactions.

Histone chaperones and the Rrm3p helicase regulate flocculation in S. cerevisiae

Background

Biofilm formation or flocculation is a major phenotype in wild type budding yeasts but rarely seen in laboratory yeast strains. Here, we analysed flocculation phenotypes and the expression of FLO genes in laboratory strains with various genetic backgrounds.

Results

We show that mutations in histone chaperones, the helicase RRM3 and the Histone Deacetylase HDA1 de-repress the FLO genes and partially reconstitute flocculation. We demonstrate that the loss of repression correlates to elevated expression of several FLO genes, to increased acetylation of histones at the promoter of FLO1 and to variegated expression of FLO11. We show that these effects are related to the activity of CAF-1 at the replication forks. We also demonstrate that nitrogen starvation or inhibition of histone deacetylases do not produce flocculation in W303 and BY4742 strains but do so in strains compromised for chromatin maintenance. Finally, we correlate the de-repression of FLO genes to the loss of silencing at the subtelomeric and mating type gene loci.

Conclusions

We conclude that the deregulation of chromatin maintenance and transmission is sufficient to reconstitute flocculation in laboratory yeast strains. Consequently, we propose that a gain in epigenetic silencing is a major contributing factor for the loss of flocculation phenotypes in these strains. We suggest that flocculation in yeasts provides an excellent model for addressing the challenging issue of how epigenetic mechanisms contribute to evolution.

Aggregate Filamentous Growth Responses in Yeast

Filamentous growth is a fungal morphogenetic response that is critical for virulence in some fungal species. Many aspects of filamentous growth remain poorly understood. We have identified an aspect of filamentous growth in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the human pathogen Candida albicans where cells behave collectively to invade surfaces in aggregates. These responses may reflect an extension of normal filamentous growth, as they share the same signaling pathways and effector processes. Aggregate responses may involve cooperation among individual cells, because aggregation was stimulated by cell adhesion molecules, secreted enzymes, and diffusible molecules that promote quorum sensing. Our study may provide insights into the genetic basis of collective cellular responses in fungi. The study may have ramifications in fungal pathogenesis, in situations where collective responses occur to promote virulence.

Many fungal species, including pathogens, undergo a morphogenetic response called filamentous growth, where cells differentiate into a specialized cell type to promote nutrient foraging and surface colonization. Despite the fact that filamentous growth is required for virulence in some plant and animal pathogens, certain aspects of this behavior remain poorly understood. By examining filamentous growth in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the opportunistic pathogen Candida albicans, we identify responses where cells undergo filamentous growth in groups of cells or aggregates. In S. cerevisiae, aggregate invasive growth was regulated by signaling pathways that control normal filamentous growth. These pathways promoted aggregation in part by fostering aspects of microbial cooperation. For example, aggregate invasive growth required cellular contacts mediated by the flocculin Flo11p, which was produced at higher levels in aggregates than cells undergoing regular invasive growth. Aggregate invasive growth was also stimulated by secreted enzymes, like invertase, which produce metabolites that are shared among cells. Aggregate invasive growth was also induced by alcohols that promote density-dependent filamentous growth in yeast. Aggregate invasive growth also required highly polarized cell morphologies, which may affect the packing or organization of cells. A directed selection experiment for aggregating phenotypes uncovered roles for the fMAPK and RAS pathways, which indicates that these pathways play a general role in regulating aggregate-based responses in yeast. Our study extends the range of responses controlled by filamentation regulatory pathways and has implications in understanding aspects of fungal biology that may be relevant to fungal pathogenesis.

IMPORTANCE Filamentous growth is a fungal morphogenetic response that is critical for virulence in some fungal species. Many aspects of filamentous growth remain poorly understood. We have identified an aspect of filamentous growth in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the human pathogen Candida albicans where cells behave collectively to invade surfaces in aggregates. These responses may reflect an extension of normal filamentous growth, as they share the same signaling pathways and effector processes. Aggregate responses may involve cooperation among individual cells, because aggregation was stimulated by cell adhesion molecules, secreted enzymes, and diffusible molecules that promote quorum sensing. Our study may provide insights into the genetic basis of collective cellular responses in fungi. The study may have ramifications in fungal pathogenesis, in situations where collective responses occur to promote virulence.

Going with the Flo: The Role of Flo11-Dependent and Independent Interactions in Yeast Mat Formation

Strains of the bakers’ yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae that are able to generate a multicellular structure called a mat on low percentage (0.3%) agar plates are given a selective advantage over strains that cannot exhibit this phenotype. This environment may exhibit some similarities to the rotting fruit on which S. cerevisiae often grows in nature. Mat formation occurs when the cells spread over the plate as they grow, and cells in the center of the biofilm aggregate to form multicellular structures that resemble a floral pattern. This multicellular behavior is dependent on the cell surface flocculin Flo11. This review covers recent information on the structure of Flo11 and how this likely impacts mat formation as well as how variegated expression of Flo11 influences mat formation. Finally, it also discusses several Flo11-independent genetic factors that control mat formation, such as vacuolar protein sorting (VPS) genes, cell wall signaling components, and heat shock proteins.

Adhesins of Yeasts: Protein Structure and Interactions

The ability of yeast cells to adhere to other cells or substrates is crucial for many yeasts. The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae can switch from a unicellular lifestyle to a multicellular one. A crucial step in multicellular lifestyle adaptation is self-recognition, self-interaction, and adhesion to abiotic surfaces. Infectious yeast diseases such as candidiasis are initiated by the adhesion of the yeast cells to host cells. Adhesion is accomplished by adhesin proteins that are attached to the cell wall and stick out to interact with other cells or substrates. Protein structures give detailed insights into the molecular mechanism of adhesin-ligand interaction. Currently, only the structures of a very limited number of N-terminal adhesion domains of adhesins have been solved. Therefore, this review focuses on these adhesin protein families. The protein architectures, protein structures, and ligand interactions of the flocculation protein family of S. cerevisiae; the epithelial adhesion family of C. glabrata; and the agglutinin-like sequence protein family of C. albicans are reviewed and discussed.

Whole-Genome Analysis of Three Yeast Strains Used for Production of Sherry-Like Wines Revealed Genetic Traits Specific to Flor Yeasts

Flor yeast strains represent a specialized group of Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeasts used for biological wine aging. We have sequenced the genomes of three flor strains originated from different geographic regions and used for production of sherry-like wines in Russia. According to the obtained phylogeny of 118 yeast strains, flor strains form very tight cluster adjacent to the main wine clade. SNP analysis versus available genomes of wine and flor strains revealed 2,270 genetic variants in 1,337 loci specific to flor strains. Gene ontology analysis in combination with gene content evaluation revealed a complex landscape of possibly adaptive genetic changes in flor yeast, related to genes associated with cell morphology, mitotic cell cycle, ion homeostasis, DNA repair, carbohydrate metabolism, lipid metabolism, and cell wall biogenesis. Pangenomic analysis discovered the presence of several well-known "non-reference" loci of potential industrial importance. Events of gene loss included deletions of asparaginase genes, maltose utilization locus, and FRE-FIT locus involved in iron transport. The latter in combination with a flor-yeast-specific mutation in the Aft1 transcription factor gene is likely to be responsible for the discovered phenotype of increased iron sensitivity and improved iron uptake of analyzed strains. Expansion of the coding region of the FLO11 flocullin gene and alteration of the balance between members of the FLO gene family are likely to positively affect the well-known propensity of flor strains for velum formation. Our study provides new insights in the nature of genetic variation in flor yeast strains and demonstrates that different adaptive properties of flor yeast strains could have evolved through different mechanisms of genetic variation.

Aromatic Amino Acid-Derived Compounds Induce Morphological Changes and Modulate the Cell Growth of Wine Yeast Species

Yeasts secrete a large diversity of compounds during alcoholic fermentation, which affect growth rates and developmental processes, like filamentous growth. Several compounds are produced during aromatic amino acid metabolism, including aromatic alcohols, serotonin, melatonin, and tryptamine. We evaluated the effects of these compounds on growth parameters in 16 different wine yeasts, including non-Saccharomyces wine strains, for which the effects of these compounds have not been well-defined. Serotonin, tryptamine, and tryptophol negatively influenced yeast growth, whereas phenylethanol and tyrosol specifically affected non-Saccharomyces strains. The effects of the aromatic alcohols were observed at concentrations commonly found in wines, suggesting a possible role in microbial interaction during wine fermentation. Additionally, we demonstrated that aromatic alcohols and ethanol are able to affect invasive and pseudohyphal growth in a manner dependent on nutrient availability. Some of these compounds showed strain-specific effects. These findings add to the understanding of the fermentation process and illustrate the diversity of metabolic communication that may occur among related species during metabolic processes.

Amyloid-Like β-Aggregates as Force-Sensitive Switches in Fungal Biofilms and Infections

Cellular aggregation is an essential step in the formation of biofilms, which promote fungal survival and persistence in hosts. In many of the known yeast cell adhesion proteins, there are amino acid sequences predicted to form amyloid-like β-aggregates. These sequences mediate amyloid formation in vitro. In vivo, these sequences mediate a phase transition from a disordered state to a partially ordered state to create patches of adhesins on the cell surface. These β-aggregated protein patches are called adhesin nanodomains, and their presence greatly increases and strengthens cell-cell interactions in fungal cell aggregation. Nanodomain formation is slow (with molecular response in minutes and the consequences being evident for hours), and strong interactions lead to enhanced biofilm formation. Unique among functional amyloids, fungal adhesin β-aggregation can be triggered by the application of physical shear force, leading to cellular responses to flow-induced stress and the formation of robust biofilms that persist under flow. Bioinformatics analysis suggests that this phenomenon may be widespread. Analysis of fungal abscesses shows the presence of surface amyloids in situ, a finding which supports the idea that phase changes to an amyloid-like state occur in vivo. The amyloid-coated fungi bind the damage-associated molecular pattern receptor serum amyloid P component, and there may be a consequential modulation of innate immune responses to the fungi. Structural data now suggest mechanisms for the force-mediated induction of the phase change. We summarize and discuss evidence that the sequences function as triggers for protein aggregation and subsequent cellular aggregation, both in vitro and in vivo.

Force Sensitivity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae Flocculins

The Saccharomyces cerevisiae flocculins mediate the formation of cellular aggregates and biofilm-like mats, useful in clearing yeast from fermentations. An important property of fungal adhesion proteins, including flocculins, is the ability to form catch bonds, i.e., bonds that strengthen under tension. This strengthening is based, at least in part, on increased avidity of binding due to clustering of adhesins in cell surface nanodomains. This clustering depends on amyloid-like β-aggregation of short amino acid sequences in the adhesins. In Candida albicans adhesin Als5, shear stress from vortex mixing can unfold part of the protein to expose aggregation-prone sequences, and then adhesins aggregate into nanodomains. We therefore tested whether shear stress from mixing can increase flocculation activity by potentiating similar protein remodeling and aggregation in the flocculins. The results demonstrate the applicability of the Als adhesin model and provide a rational framework for the enhancement or inhibition of flocculation in industrial applications.

Many fungal adhesins have short, β-aggregation-prone sequences that play important functional roles, and in the Candida albicans adhesin Als5p, these sequences cluster the adhesins after exposure to shear force. Here, we report that Saccharomyces cerevisiae flocculins Flo11p and Flo1p have similar β-aggregation-prone sequences and are similarly stimulated by shear force, despite being nonhomologous. Shear from vortex mixing induced the formation of small flocs in cells expressing either adhesin. After the addition of Ca²⁺, yeast cells from vortex-sheared populations showed greatly enhanced flocculation and displayed more pronounced thioflavin-bright surface nanodomains. At high concentrations, amyloidophilic dyes inhibited Flo1p- and Flo11p-mediated agar invasion and the shear-induced increase in flocculation. Consistent with these results, atomic force microscopy of Flo11p showed successive force-distance peaks characteristic of sequentially unfolding tandem repeat domains, like Flo1p and Als5p. Flo11p-expressing cells bound together through homophilic interactions with adhesion forces of up to 700 pN and rupture lengths of up to 600 nm. These results are consistent with the potentiation of yeast flocculation by shear-induced formation of high-avidity domains of clustered adhesins at the cell surface, similar to the activation of Candida albicans adhesin Als5p. Thus, yeast adhesins from three independent gene families use similar force-dependent interactions to drive cell adhesion.

IMPORTANCE The Saccharomyces cerevisiae flocculins mediate the formation of cellular aggregates and biofilm-like mats, useful in clearing yeast from fermentations. An important property of fungal adhesion proteins, including flocculins, is the ability to form catch bonds, i.e., bonds that strengthen under tension. This strengthening is based, at least in part, on increased avidity of binding due to clustering of adhesins in cell surface nanodomains. This clustering depends on amyloid-like β-aggregation of short amino acid sequences in the adhesins. In Candida albicans adhesin Als5, shear stress from vortex mixing can unfold part of the protein to expose aggregation-prone sequences, and then adhesins aggregate into nanodomains. We therefore tested whether shear stress from mixing can increase flocculation activity by potentiating similar protein remodeling and aggregation in the flocculins. The results demonstrate the applicability of the Als adhesin model and provide a rational framework for the enhancement or inhibition of flocculation in industrial applications.